Spatiotemporal Analysis of Stadium-Related Theft: An English Case-Study

Abstract

Academic studies on football-related crimes have predominantly focused on violent crimes and fans engaged in these crimes. Unlike these studies which may be deemed a reflection of the traditional criminology in the football context, this paper examines the crime patterns focused on where and when theft crimes might occur on match days and why such patterns might emerge. Routine activities theory and crime pattern theory which are two related theories of environmental criminology provide a theoretical framework for the study. These two theories successfully reveal how the components of the social and physical environment provide the necessary conditions for stadium-related theft. Methodologically, for the spatial analysis of theft crimes, the methods of Kernel Density Estimation and spatial permutation test are employed; for the temporal analysis, a “match adjusted temporal analysis” is developed. Using the hotspotting technique around the Elland Road Stadium of Leeds United football team, it is suggested that theft crimes are not randomly distributed in time (match days and non-match days) and space. The risk of theft (per unit of time) is found to be particularly elevated at certain locations near to the stadium on match days, and for a window of time before, during and after matches take place. Analysing the spatial and temporal dimensions of stadium-related theft crime is likely to provide guidance about when and where to deploy officers by informing intelligence services.

Keywords

• Stadium-related crime,Theft,Hotspotting,Crime prevention,Crime pattern theory,Routine activities theory

Stadyum İlişkili Hırsızlık Suçunun MekânsalZamansal Analizi: İngiliz Örnekleminde Olay İncelemesi

Abstract

Futbola ilişkin akademik çalışmalar, çoğunlukla, şiddet suçlarını ve bu suçları işleyen taraftarları konu edinmiştir. Geleneksel kriminolojinin futbol kontekstine bir yansıması olarak düşünülebilecek bu çalışmalardan farklı olarak bu araştırma, hırsızlık suçlarının maç günlerinde nerede ve ne zaman ortaya çıkabileceğine odaklanan suç desenlerini ve bu desenlerin neden ortaya çıkabileceğini incelemektedir. Çevresel kriminolojinin birbiriyle bağlantılı teorilerinden rutin aktiviteler teorisi ile suç deseni teorisi, bu çalışmanın teorik çerçevesini oluşturmaktadır. Bu iki teori sosyal ve fiziksel çevrenin bileşenlerinin stadyum ilişkili hırsızlık suçu için gerekli şartları nasıl sağladığını başarılı bir şekilde göstermektedir. Metodolojik olarak hırsızlık suçlarının mekânsal analizi için Kernel Yoğunluk Tahmini ve uzaysal permütasyon testi kullanılmış, zamansal analiz içinse bir “maç ayarlı zamansal analiz” geliştirilmiştir. Leeds United futbol takımının Elland Road Stadyumu çevresinde sıcak noktalama tekniği uygulanarak hırsızlık suçlarının zamanda (maç günlerinde ve maç olmayan günlerde) ve mekânda rastgele dağılmadığı ortaya konulmuştur. Stadyum ilişkili hırsızlık suçlarının zamansal ve mekânsal analizi, istihbarat hizmetlerine bilgi sağlayarak güvenlik görevlilerinin ne zaman ve nerede konuşlanması gerektiği konusunda bir rehber olarak kullanılabilecektir.

Keywords

• Stadyum ilişkili suç,Hırsızlık,Sıcak noktalama,Suç deseni teorisi,Rutin aktiviteler teorisi

References

1. Armstrong, G. (1998), Football Hooligans: Knowing the Score. Oxford: Berg.
2. Branscombe, N. R. & Wann, D. L. (1992), ‘Role of Identification with a Group, Arousal, Categorization Processes, and Self-Esteem in Sports Spectator Aggression’, Human Relations, 45(10): 1013-1033.
3. Braga, A. A., Papachristos, A. V. & Hureau, D. M. (2014), ‘The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, Justice Quarterly, 31(4): 633-663.
4. Brunsdon, C. & Corcoran, J. (2006), ‘Using Circular Statistics to Analyse Time Patterns in Crime Incidence’, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 30(3): 300-319.
5. Brantingham, P. L. & Brantingham, P. J. (1981), ‘Notes on the Geometry of Crime’, Environmental Criminology, 27-54.
6. Brantingham, P. L. & Brantingham, P. J. (1984), ‘Mobility, Notoriety and Crime: A study of Crime Patterns in Urban Nodal Points’, Journal of Environmental Systems, 11(1): 89-99.
7. Brantingham, P. L. & Brantingham, P. J. (1993), ‘Nodes, Paths and Edges: Considerations on the Complexity of Crime and the Physical Environment’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13(1): 3-28.
8. Brantingham, P. L. & Brantingham, P. J. (1999), ‘A Theoretical Model of Crime Hot Spot Generation’, Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 8: 7-26.

9. Breetzke, G. & Cohn, E. G. (2013), ‘Sporting Events and the Spatial Patterning of Crime in South Africa: Local Interpretations and International Implications’, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice/La Revue Canadienne de Criminologie et de Justice Pénale, 55(3): 387-420.
10. Brunsdon, C. & Corcoran, J. (2006), ‘Using Circular Statistics to Analyse Time Patterns in Crime Incidence’, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 30(3): 300-319.
11. Buford, B. (1991), Among the Thugs. London: Random House. Chainey, S. & Ratcliffe, J. (2005), GIS and Crime Mapping. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
12. Clarke, R. V. G. & Eck, J. E. (2005), Crime Analysis for Problem Solvers in 60 Small Steps. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, US Department of Justice.
13. Cohen, L. E. & Felson, M. (1979), ‘Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach’, American Sociological Review, 44(4): 588-608.
14. Cornish, D. B. & Clarke, R. V. (1986), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer.
15. De Vreese, S. (2000), ‘Hooliganism Under the Statistical Magnifying Glass: A Belgian Case Study’, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 8: 201-23.
16. Dunning, E. (1999), Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence, and Civilization. Routledge: Chapman & Hall.
17. Dunning, E., Murphy, P. & Williams, J. M. (1988), The Roots of Football Hooliganism: An Historical and Sociological Study. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
18. Eck, J. E. (1994), Drug Markets and Drug Places: A Case-control Study of the Spatial Structure of Illicit Drug Dealing. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. University of Maryland, Faculty of the Graduate School.
19. Eck, J. E. (2003), ‘The Complexity of Problem Theory, Research and Evaluation’, in J. Knutsson (Ed.) ProblemOriented Policing: From Innovation to Mainstream Crime Prevention Studies. Monsley, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
20. Eck, J. E. & Weisburd, D. (1995), Crime and Place: Crime Prevention Studies. Monsley, NY: Willow Tree Pr.
21. Elias, N. & Dunning, E. (1971), ‘Folk Football in Medieval and Early Modern Britain’, The Sociology of Sport, 116-132.
22. Felson, M. (1986), ‘Linking Criminal Choices, Routine Activities, Informal Control, and Criminal Outcomes’, in Cornish, D. B. & Clarke, R. V. (Eds.) The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer.
23. Felson, M. (1995), ‘Those Who Discourage Crime’, in Eck J. & Weisburd D. (Eds.) Crime Prevention Studies – Volume 4. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
24. Felson, M. & Cohen L. (1980), ‘Human Ecology and Crime: A Routine Activity Approach’, Human Ecology, 8: 389-406.
25. Fitz-Stephen, W. (1961), Fitz-Stephen’s Description of the City of London. London: B. White. Frosdick, S. & Marsh, P. (2005), Football Hooliganism. London: Taylor & Francis.
26. Harrison, P. (1974), ‘Soccer’s Tribal Wars’, New Society, 29(622): 602–604.
27. Hird, C. & Ruparel, C. (2007), Seasonality in Recorded Crime: Preliminary Findings. Home Office.
28. Home Office (2004), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2003/2004. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/football-banning-orders Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
29. Home Office (2005), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2004/2005. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/football-banning-orders Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
30. Home Office (2006), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2005/2006. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/football-banning-orders Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
31. Home Office (2007), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2006/2007. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/football-banning-orders Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
32. Home Office (2008), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2007/2008. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/football-banning-orders Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
33. Home Office (2009), Home Office Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders: Season 2008/2009. http:// www.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/football-arrests-08092835.pdf?view1⁄4Binary. Erişim: 2 Kasım 2010.
34. Johnson, S. D. (2010), ‘A Brief History of Crime Concentration’, European Journal of Applied Mathematics, 21: 349-370.
35. Johnson, S. D., Lab, S. P. & Bowers, K. J. (2008), ‘Stable and Fluid Hotspots of Crime: Differentiation and Identification’, Built Environment, 34(1): 32-45.
36. Johnson, S. D., Tilley, N. & Bowers, K. J. (2015), ‘Introducing EMMIE: An Evidence Rating Scale to Encourage Mixed-Method Crime Prevention Synthesis Reviews’, Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11: 459-473.
37. Kurland, J. (2014), The Ecology of Football-Related Crime and Disorder. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. University College London, London.
38. Kurland, J., Johnson, S. D. & Tilley, N. (2010), Late Weekend Kick-offs at Premier Football Matches and their Possible Link to Increased Levels of Alcohol-related ASB and Disorder. London: Government Office for London.
39. Kurland, J., Johnson, S. D. & Tilley, N. (2013), ‘Offenses around Stadiums: A Natural Experiment on Crime Attraction and Generation’, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 51(1): 5-28.
40. Kurland, J., Tilley, N. & Johnson, S. D. (2014), ‘A Football Hotspot Matrix: A Framework for Targeting of Football-related Crime and Disorder’, in Hopkins, M. & Treadwell, J. (Eds.) Football Hooliganism, Crime and Crowd Management: Contemporary perspectives in Relation to Research and Theory. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
41. Kurland, J., Tilley, N. & Johnson, S. D. (2018), ‘Football Pollution: An Investigation of Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Crime in and around Stadia in England’, Security Journal, 31(3): 665-684.
42. Lösel, F. & Bliesener, T. (2003), ‘Hooligan Violence: A Study on Prevale, Origins and Prevention’, in F. Dünkel & K. Drenkhahn (Eds.) Youth Violence: New Patters and Local Responses – Experiences in East and West. Mönchengladbach: Forum Verlag Godesberg.
43. Madensen, T. D. & Eck, J. E. (2011), ‘Crowd-Related Crime: An Environmental Criminological Perspective’, in T. D. Madensen & J. Knutsson (Eds.) Preventing Crowd Violence. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
44. Madensen, T.D. & Knutsson, J. (2011), Preventing Crowd Violence. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
45. Marples, M. (1954), A History of Football. Londra: Secker & Warburg. Marsh, P.E. (1978), Aggro: The Illusion of Violence. Londra: Dent. Nettler, G. (1978), ‘Social Status and Self-Reported Criminality’, Social Forces, 57(1): 304-305.
46. North, B. V., Curtis, D. & Sham, P. C. (2002), ‘A Note on the Calculation of Empirical P Values from Monte Carlo Procedures’, American Journal of Human Genetics, 71(2): 439-441.
47. Openshaw, S. (1984), The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. Geo Abstracts University of East Anglia.
48. Ratcliffe, J.H. (2002), ‘Aoristic Signatures and the Spatio-Temporal Analysis of High Volume Crime Patterns’, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18(1): 23-43.
49. Ratcliffe, J. H. (2004), ‘The Hotspot Matrix: A Framework for the Spatio-Temporal Targeting of Crime Reduction’, Police Practice and Research, 5(1): 5-23.
50. Reppetto, T.A. (1974), Residential Crime. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company.
51. Robson, G. (2000), ‘No One Likes Us, We Don”t Care’: The Myth and Reality of Millwall Fandom. Oxford: Berg.
52. Rossmo, K. D. (2000), Geographic Profiling. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
53. Rossmo, K. D., Laverty, I. & Moore, B. (2004), ‘Geographic Profiling for Serial Crime Investigation’, in F. Wang (Ed.) Geographic Information Systems and Crime Analysis. Hershey: Idea Group.
54. Rotton, J., D. Olszewski, M. Charleton, and E. Soler. (1978), ‘Loud Speech, Conglomerate Noise, and Behavioral Aftereffects’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(3): 360-365.
55. Russell, G.W. (2004), ‘Sport Riots: A Social-Psychological Review’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9(4): 353-378.
56. Scott, M. S., Eck, J. E., Knutsson, J. & Goldstein, H. (2008), ‘Problem-Oriented Policing and Environmental Criminology’, in R. Wortley & L. Mazerolle (Eds.) Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis. Londra: Willan.
57. Sherman, L.W. (1995), ‘Hot Spots of Crime and Criminal Careers of Places’, in J. E. Eck & D. Weisburd (Eds.) Crime and Place: Crime Prevention Studies. Monsey: Willow Tree. Sherman, L.W., Gartin, P. R., & Buerger, M. E. (1989), ‘Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place’, Criminology, 27(1): 27-56.
58. Stott, C. & Pearson, G. (2006), ‘Football Banning Orders, Proportionality, and Public Order Policing’, The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(3): 241-254.
59. Strutt, J. (1801), The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England from the Earliest Period: Including the Rural and Domestic Recreations, May Games, Mummeries, Pageants, Processions and Pompous Spectacles. Londra: Methuen & Company.
60. Taylor, I. (1971), ‘A Speculative Sociology of Football Hooliganism’, in E. Dunning (Ed.) The Sociology of Sport: A Selection of Readings. London: Cass.
61. Tekin (2019), Türk Futbolunda Durumsal Suç Önlemenin Kriminolojik Bir Değerlendirmesi, İstanbul: Legal Yayıncılık.
62. Townsley, M. & Sidebottom, A. (2010), ‘All Offenders Are Equal, but Some Are More Equal Than Others: Variation in Journeys to Crime Between Offenders’, Criminology, 48(3): 897-917.
63. Weisburd, D. (2002), ‘From Criminals to Criminal Contexts: Reorienting Crime Prevention Research and Policy’, Crime and Social Organization: Advances in Criminological Theory, 10: 197-216.
64. Wortley, R. (2001), ‘A Classification Technique for Controlling Situational Precipitators of Crime’, Security Journal, 14: 63-82.