Toplumsal Olaylara Dair Episodik ve Semantik Bellek Süreçlerinin Heyecanlanma Düzeyi ile İlişkisinin Yaş ve Heyecanın Ölçüm Türü Açısından İncelenmesi

Abstract

Araştırmanın temel amacı toplumsal olaylara dair episodik (EB) ve semantik bellek (SB) süreçleri ile heyecanlanma arasındaki ilişkiyi ve bu ilişkinin yaş grupları arasında farklılıklar gösterip göstermediğini, öz-değerlendirmelere dayanan heyecanlanma ile fizyolojik ölçümlerle saptanan heyecanlanma düzeyi arasındaki tutarlılığı ve olayların fenomonolojik özelliklerini bellek türüne ve heyecanlanma düzeyine göre incelemektir. Bu amaçla, 18-25 yaş arası 32 genç yetişkin bireyden (Ort. = 20.60, SS = 2.22), 40-55 yaş arası 33 orta yaş yetişkin bireyden (Ort. = 47.32, SS = 6.60) ve 60-75 yaş arası 30 yaşlı bireylerden (Ort. = 69.97, SS = 6.16) veri toplanmıştır. Katılımcılardan kendilerine sunulan 10 adet toplumsal olay için hatırlama/bilme değerlendirmesi yapmaları istenmiştir. Sonrasında hem sunulan olayın içeriğine ilişkin (SB) hem de olayı haber alma bağlamının hatırlanmasına ilişkin (EB) soruları cevaplamışlardır. Son olarak, hatırlama sırasındaki heyecan düzeylerini belirtmiş ve olayları önem, duygusal yük ve yoğunluk gibi fenomonolojik özellikler açısından değerlendirmişlerdir. Heyecanlanma düzeyi GSR (Galvanic skin response) cihazı ile fizyolojik ölçümler yapılarak da değerlendirilmiştir. Öz-bildirime dayalı heyecanlanma düzeyinin SB süreçlerine kıyasla EB için yüksek olduğu gözlemlenirken, heyecanlanmanın beş fizyolojik gösterge için farklı örüntüler gösterdiği bulunmuştur. Heyecanlanma düzeyi arttıkça EB ve SB performansları da artmış ve genç bireyler diğer iki yaş grubuna kıyasla daha yüksek heyecanlanma seviyesi ve daha hızlı fizyolojik tepki göstermişlerdir. Fenomonolojik özellikler incelendiğinde ise hatırlanan olaylar, bilinenlere kıyasla daha önemli, duygusal olarak da daha yoğun ve olumsuz olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Ayrıca, heyecanlanma düzeyi arttıkça olayın öneminin, duygu yoğunluğunun ve olumsuzluk derecesinin arttığı görülmüştür. Bulgulara ek olarak, öz-bildirimlerin güvenilirliği ve objektif ölçümlerin önemi tartışılmıştır. Son olarak, bu çalışmadaki bulgular ve sınırlılıklar göz önünde bulundurularak gelecek araştırmalar için öneriler sunulmuştur.

Keywords

• Otobiyografik bellek,semantik bellek,episodik bellek,heyecanlanma ve bellek,toplumsal olaylar ve bellek,flaş bellek

Episodic and Semantic Memory Processes Regarding Public Events and Their Relationship with Arousal Level, Age and Measurement Type

Abstract

The major aims of the study were to investigate (1) the potential differences in arousal levels for episodic (EM) and semantic memory (SM) processes regarding public events and the comparison of these differences for different age groups, (2) the consistency of self-report versus objective measures of arousal, and (3) phenomenological characteristics of the events as function of memory type and arousal level. The sample consisted of 32 young adults whose ages ranged between 18 and 25 years (M= 20.60, SD = 2.22), 33 middle-aged adults aged between 40 and 55 years (M = 47.32, SD = 6.60), and 30 elderly people aged between 60 and 75 years (M = 69.97, SD = 6.16). Participants were asked to make a remember/know judgment for the 10 public events presented to them. They further answered event-related questions (SM) and questions regarding the context of hearing about the event (EM). Moreover, they reported their arousal level during recall and evaluated each event in terms of phenomenological characteristics such as importance, emotional intensity, and valence. Arousal level was also measured using physiological measurements with the GSR device. Based on self-reports, EM processes were associated with higher arousal levels compared to SM processes whereas the five physiological indicators of arousal displayed different patterns. Both EM and SM performance displayed an increase together with the increasing arousal levels, and young participants displayed higher levels of arousal and faster physiological responses than both middle-aged and elderly adults. When phenomenological characteristics were examined, remembered public events were rated more important, emotionally more intense and more negative than known events. Furthermore, higher arousal levels were associated with higher ratings of emotional intensity, importance and negativity. The reliability of self-reports and the critical role of applying objective measures were discussed together with the findings. Finally, some suggestions were proposed for future research on the basis of the current limitations and results.

Keywords

• Autobiographical memory,semantic memory,episodic memory,arousal and memory,public events memories,flashbulb memory

References

1. Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T. ve Schacter, D. L. (2008). Age-related changes in the episodic simulation of future events. Psychological Science, 19(1), 33–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02043.x.
2. Adolphs, R., Denburg, N. L. ve Tranel, D. (2001). The amygdala’s role in long-term declarative memory for gist and detail. Behavioral Neuroscience, 115, 983–992. doi: 10.1037//0735-7044.115.5.983
3. Anderson, A. K., Wais, P. E. ve Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2006). Emotion enhances remembrance of neutral events past. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 1599–1604. doi: 10.1073/ pnas.0506308103
4. Atkinson, R. C. ve Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control of short-term memory. Scientific American, 225, 82-90. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0871-82
5. Berntsen, D. (2002). Tunnel memories for autobiographical events: Central details are remembered more frequently from shocking than from happy experiences. Memory & Cognition, 30(7), 10101020. doi: 10.3758/BF03194319
6. Borrini, G., Dall’ora, P., Della-Sala, S., Mainelli, L. ve Spinnler, H. (1989). Autobiographical memory: Sensitivity to age and education of a standardized enquiry. Psychological Medicine, 19, 215-224. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700011181
7. Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Sabatinelli, D., Cuthbert, B. N. ve Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotion and motivation II: Sex differences in picture processing. Emotion, 1(13), 300-319. doi: 10.1037//15283542.1.3.300
8. Bradley, M. M., Greenwald, M. K., Petry, M. C. ve Lang, P. J. (1992). Remembering pictures: Pleasure and arousal in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 379–390. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.18.2.379

9. Brown, R. ve Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73-99. doi: 10.1016/00100277(77)90018-X
10. Buchanan, T.W. (2007). Retrieval of emotional memories. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 761-779. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.761
11. Burke, A., Heuer, F. ve Reisberg, D. (1992). Remembering emotional events. Memory and Cognition, 20, 277–290. doi: 10.3758/BF03199665
12. Burns, A., Greene, B. R., McGrath, M. J., O’Shea, T. J., Kuris, B., Ayer S. M., … Cionca, V. (2010). Shimmer—A wireless sensor platform for noninvasive biomedical research. Sensors Journal, 10, 1527–1534. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2010.2045498
13. Cabeza, R. (2001). Functional neuroimaging of cognitive aging. R. Cabeza ve A. Kingstone (Ed.), Handbook of functional neuroimaging of cognition içinde (s. 331–377). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
14. Cohen, G. ve Faulkner, D. (1988). Life span changes in autobiographical memory. M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris ve R. N. Sykes (Ed.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, Vol. 1. Memory in everyday life içinde (s. 277-282). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.
15. Conway, M. A. ve Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). On the construction of autobiographical memories in a self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261–288. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.107.2.261
16. Conway, M. A., Wang, Q., Hanyu, K. ve Haque, S. (2005). A cross-cultural investigation of autobiographical memory: On the universality and cultural variation of the reminiscence bump. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(6), 739-749. doi: 10.1177/0022022105280512
17. Craik, F. I. M. ve McDowd, J. M. (1987). Age differences in recall and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 474-479. doi: 10.1037/02787393.13.3.474
18. Daselaar, S. M., Rice, H. J., Greenberg, D. L., Cabeza, R., LaBar, K. S. ve Rubin, D. C. (2008). The spatiotemporal dynamics of autobiographical memory: Neural correlates of recall, emotional intensity, and reliving. Cerebral Cortex, 18(1), 217–229. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm048
19. Demiray, B. ve Bluck, S. (2011). The relation of the conceptual self to recent and distant autobiographical memories. Memory, 19(8), 975-992. doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.626427
20. Dixon, R. A., De Frias, C. M. ve Maitland, S. B. (2001). Memory in midlife. M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development içinde (s. 248–278). New York: Wiley. doi:10.1016/B0-08043076-7/01695-8
21. Dougal, S. ve Rotello, C. (2007). ‘Remembering’ emotional words is based on response bias, not recollection. Psychonomic Bulleting & Review, 14, 423– 429. doi: 10.3758/BF03194083
22. Esen, F., Celebi, G., Ertekin, C. ve Colakoglu, Z. (1997). Electrodermal activity in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical Autonomic Research, 7(1), 35-40. doi: 10.1007/bf02267624
23. Fischer, H., Nyberg, L., Karlsson, S., Karlsson, P., Brehmer, Y., Rieckmann, A., . . . Bäckman, L. (2010). Simulating neurocognitive aging: Effects of a dopaminergic antagonist on brain activity during working memory. Biological Psychiatry, 67(6), 575-580. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.013
24. Folstein, M. F., Folstein. S. ve McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini Mental State” A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189198. doi: 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
25. Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 87-115. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.87
26. Gavazzeni, J., Wiens, S. ve Fischer, H. (2008). Age effects to negative arousal differ for self-report and electrodermal activity. Psychophysiology, 45(1), 148–51. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00596.x
27. Grady, C. L. (2001). Age-related changes in the functional neuroanatomy of memory. M. NavehBenjamin, M. Moscovitch ve H. Roediger III (Ed.), Perspectives on human memory and cognitive aging: essays in honour of Fergus Craik içinde (s. 265-276). New York: Psychology Press.
28. Grady, C. L. ve Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Changes in memory processing with age. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10, 224-231. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00073-8
29. Graf, P. ve Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 501518. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.11.3.501
30. Greenberg, D. L., Rice, H. J., Cooper, J. J., Cabeza, R., Rubin, D. C. ve LaBar, K. S. (2005). Coactivation of the amygdala, hippocampus, and inferior frontal gyrus during autobiographical memory retrieval. Neuropsychologia, 43, 659–674. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.09.002
31. Güngen, C., Ertan, T., Eker, E., Yaşar, R. ve Engin. F. (2002). Reliability and validity of the standardized Mini Mental State Examination in the diagnosis of mild dementia in Turkish population. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 13(4), 273-281.
32. Hamann, S. (2001). Cognitive and neural mechanisms of emotional memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 394-400. doi: 10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01707-1
33. Hasher, L. ve Zacks, R. (1979). Automatic and effortfull, processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 356-388. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.108.3.356
34. Holland, C. A. ve Rabbit, P. M. A. (1990). Autobiographical and text recall in the elderly: An investigation of a processing resource deficit. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 42A (3), 441-470. doi: 10.1080/14640749008401232
35. Keil, A. ve Freund, A. M. (2009). Changes in the sensitivity to appetitive and aversive arousal across adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 24(3), 668. doi: 10.1037/a0016969
36. Kensinger, E. A. (2004). Remembering emotional experiences: The contribution of valence and arousal. Reviews in Neurosciences, 15(4), 241-253. doi: 10.1515/revneuro.2004.15.4.241
37. Kensinger, E. A. ve Corkin, S. (2003). Memory enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral words? Memory and Cognition, 31(8), 1169-1180. doi: 10.3758/bf03195800
38. Kensinger, E. A. ve Corkin, S. (2004). Two routes to emotional memory: Distinct neural processes for valence and arousal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101, 3310–3315. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0306408101
39. Khalfa, S., Peretz, I., Jean-Pierre, B. ve Manon, R. (2002). Event-related skin conductance responses to musical emotions in humans. Neuroscience letters, 328, 145-149. doi: 10.1016/s03043940(02)00462-7
40. Kopelman, M. D., Wilson, B. A. ve Baddeley, A. D. (1989). The autobiographical memory interview: A new assessment of autobiographical and personal semantic memory in amnesic patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11(5), 724-744. doi: 10.1080/01688638908400928
41. Ledalab 3.4.6 -Leipzig ElectroDermal Activity Lab (2015, Mart). Erişim adresi: http://www.ledalab.de
42. Lee, A. C. H., Robbins, T. W. ve Owen, A. M. (2000). Episodic memory meets working memory in the frontal lobe: Functional neuroimaging studies of encoding and retrieval. Crit Rev Neurobiol, 14, 165–197.
43. Leigland, L. A., Schulz, L. E. ve Janowsky, J. S. (2004). Age related changes in emotional memory. Neurobiology of Aging, 25, 1117-1124. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2003.10.015
44. Leiner, D., Fahr, A. ve Früh, H. (2012). EDA positive change: A simple algorithm for electrodermal activity to measure general audience arousal during media exposure. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(4), 237-250. doi: 10.1080/19312458.2012.732627
45. Levine, B., Svoboda, E., Hay, J. F., Winocur, G. ve Moscovitch, M. (2002). Aging and autobiographical memory: Dissociating episodic from semantic retrieval. Psychology and Aging, 17(4), 677-689. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.677
46. Light, L. L. (1991). Memory and aging: Four hypotheses for data. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 333–376. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002001
47. Lim, C. L., Rennie, C., Barry, R. J., Bahramali, H., Lazzaro, I., Manor, B. ve Gordon, E. (1997). Decomposing skin conductance into tonic and phasic components. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 25, 97–109. doi: 10.1016/s0167-8760(96)00713-1
48. MacKay, D. G. ve Ahmetzanov, M. V. (2005). Emotion, memory, and attention in the taboo Stroop paradigm: An experimental analogue of flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 16, 25-32. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00776.x
49. Maguire, E. A. (2001). Neuroimaging studies of autobiographical event memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 356, 1441–1451. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2001.0944
50. Maguire, E. A. ve Frith, C. D. (2003). Lateral asymmetry in the hippocampal response to the remoteness of autobiographical memories. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5302–5307. doi: 10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.23-12-05302.2003
51. Markowitsch, H. J., Thiel, A., Reinkemeier, M., Kessler, J., Koyuncu, A. ve Heiss, W. D. (2000). Right amygdala and temporofrontal activation during autobiographic but not during fictitious memory retrieval. Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 181–190. doi: 10.1155/2000/303651
52. McGaugh, J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 1–28. doi: 10.1146/annurev. neuro.27.070203.144157
53. McIntyre, J. S. ve Craik, F. I. M. (1987). Age differences in memory for item and source information. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41, 175–192. doi: 10.1037/h0084154
54. Molloy, D. W. ve Standish, T. I. M. (1997). A guide to the standardized mini mental state examination. International Psychogeriatrics, 9(1), 87- 94. doi:10.1017/s1041610297004754
55. Multhaup, K. S., Johnson, M. D. ve Tetirick, J. C. (2005). The wane of childhood amnesia for autobiographical and public event memories. Memory, 13, 161-173. doi:10.1080/09608210344000652
56. Ochsner, K. N. (2000). Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(2), 242261. doi: 10.1037//0096-3445.129.2.242
57. Phelps, E. A. ve Sharot, T. (2008). How (and why) emotion enhances the subjective sense of recollection. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 147-152. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00565.x
58. Piolino, P., Desgranges, B., Benali, K. ve Eustache, F. (2002). Episodic and semantic remote memory in aging. Memory, 10, 239–257. doi: 10.1080/09658210143000353
59. Piolino, P., Desgranges, B. ve Eustache, F. (2009). Episodic autobiographical memories over the course of time: cognitive, neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings. Neuropsychologia, 47(11), 2314-29. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.01.020
60. Ramponi, C., Handelsman, G. ve Barnard, P. J. (2010). The memory enhancement effect of emotion is absent in conceptual implicit memory. Emotion, 10(2), 294-299. doi: 10.1037/a0018491
61. Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: Integration of structural and functional findings. F. I. M. Craik ve T. A. Salthouse (Ed.), The handbook of aging and cognition içinde (s. 1-90). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
62. Reisberg, D. ve Heuer, F. (1992). Remembering the details of emotional events. E. Winograd ve U. Neisser (Ed.), Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of “flashbulb” memories içinde (s. 163–190). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511664069.009
63. Rugg, M. D., Johnson, J. D., Park, H. ve Uncapher, M. R. (2008). Encoding-retrieval overlap in human episodic memory: A functional neuroimaging perspective. Progress in Brain Research, 169, 339– 352. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00021-0
64. Schacter, D. L. (1992). Implicit knowledge: New perspectives on unconscious processes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89(23), 1113-1117. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.23.11113
65. Sharot, T., Delgado, M. R. ve Phelps, E. A. (2004). How emotion enhances the feeling of remembering. Nature Neuroscience., 7 , 376–1380. doi: 10.1038/nn1353
66. Sharot, T. ve Yonelinas, A. P. (2008). Differential time-dependent effects of emotion on the recollective experience and memory for contextual information. Cognition, 106, 538–547. doi: 10.1016/j. cognition.2007.03.002
67. Spencer, W. D. ve Raz, N. (1995). Differential effects of aging on memory for content and context: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 10, 527-539. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.10.4.527
68. Spilich, G. J. (1983). Life span components of text processing: Structural and procedural differences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 231-244. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90178-0Get
69. Talarico, M.J., Berntsen, D. ve Rubin, D.C. (2009). Positive emotions enhance recall of peripheral details. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 380-398. doi: 10.1080/02699930801993999
70. Talarico, J. M. ve Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455-461. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.02453
71. Talarico, J. M. ve Rubin, D. C. (2007). Flashbulb memories are special after all; in phenomenology, not accuracy. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21(5), 557-578. doi: 10.1002/acp.1293
72. Talmi, D. ve Moscovitch, M. (2004). Can semantic relatedness explain the enhancement of memory for emotional words? Memory and Cognition, 32(5), 742-751. doi: 10.3758/BF03195864
73. Tekcan, A. I., Ece, B., Gülgöz, S. ve Er, N. (2003). Autobiographical and event memory for 9/11: Changes across one year. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 1057-1066. doi: 10.1002/acp.985
74. Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. E. Tulving ve W. Donaldson (Ed.), Organization of memory içinde (s. 382-403). New York, NY: Academic Press.
75. Tulving, E. (1995). Organization of memory: Quo vadis? M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The Cognitive neurosciences içinde (s. 753-847). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
76. Tulving, E., Schacter, D. L., McLachlan, D. R. ve Moscovitch, M. (1988). Priming of semantic autobiographical knowledge: A case study of retrograde amnesia. Brain and Cognition, 8, 3–20. doi: 10.1016/0278-2626(88)90035-8
77. Vecchiato, G., Astolfi L., De Vico Fallani, F., Cincotti, F., Mattia, D., Salinari, S., ... Babiloni, F. (2010). Changes in Brain Activity During the Observation of TV Commercials by Using EEG, GSR and HR Measurements. Brain Topography 23(2), 165-79. doi: 10.1007/s10548-009-0127-0
78. Wessel, I. ve Merckelbach, H. (1998). Memory for threat relevant and threat-irrelevant cues in spider phobics. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 93–104. doi: 10.1080/026999398379790
79. Winograd, E. ve Killinger, W. A. (1983). Relating age at encoding in early childhood to adult recall: Development of flashbulb memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 413–422. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.112.3.413
80. Zacks, R. T., Hasher, L. ve Li, H. (2000). Human memory. F. I. M. Craik ve T. A. Salthouse (Ed.), The handbook of aging and cognition içinde (s. 293–357). London, UK: Erlbaum.
81. Zelinski, E. M., Light, L. L. ve Gilewski, M. J. (1984). Adult age differences in memory for prose: The question of sensibility to passage structure. Developmental Psychology, 20(6),doi:10.1037/00121649.20.6.1181