OSMANLI “GERİLEMESİNİ” YENİDEN DÜŞÜNMEK: OSMANLI DEVLETİ’NDE ASKERİ TEKNOLOJİNİN YAYILMASI (15. YÜZYILDAN 18. YÜZYILA KADAR)

Abstract

References

1. i Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), s. 67, 73; Paul Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 1968), s. 195; P. M. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent 1516-1922: A Political History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966), pp. 61-70; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300-1600 (New Rochelle: Orpheus Publishing, 1973), s. 41 52; Aşir Arkayin, Ikinci Viyana Kusatmasi 1683 (Ankara: Gnkur. Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt Başkanligi Yayinlari, 1983); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), s. 21-39. Gerileme tezi ile ilgili en son tartışmalar için ayrıca bak Halil Inalcik ve Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1014 (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 1994).
2. ii Reuben Levy, An Introduction to the Sociology of Islam (London: Harrison and Sons, 1933). Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, cilt. 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), çalışma 1700 yılından sonraki Đslam medeniyetinin gerilemesine dair daha ayrıntılı değerlendirmeler sunmaktadır. Ayrıca bk. Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
3. iii Mesela bu tür çalışmaların en başta gelen ismi için bk. H. A. R. Gibb ve H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, cilt. 1, s. 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1950).
4. iv Bu konuda kayda değer bir istisna: Virginia H. Aksan, An Ottoman Statesman in War and Peace: Ahmed Resmi Efendi, 1700-1783 (Leiden: E. ]. Brill, 1995).
5. v Inalcik ve Quataert, editörler., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300- 1914, s. 22.
6. vi Suraiya Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change, 1590-1699," An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914, ed. Inalcik ve Quataert, s. 468. 1500-1800 yılları arasındaki Osmanlıların ekonomik gerilemesinin yorumlanmasına dair bir reddiye için bk. Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800-1914 (London: Methuen, 1981), s. 1-23.
7. vii Keith Krause, Arms and the State: Patterns of Military Production and Trade (Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), s. 30-31.
8. viii Krause, Arms and the State, s. 38.

9. ix Krause, Arms and the State, s. 54.
10. x Krause, Arms and the State, s. 37-45.
11. xi Krause, Arms and the State, s. 43, 51-52.
12. xii Rudi Matthee, "Unwalled Cities and Restless Nomads: Firearms and Artillery in Safavid Iran," Safavid Persia, ed. Charles Melville (London: I. B. Taurus, 1996), s. 391 410; David Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040-1797 (London: Longman, 1994), s. 116-17, 125-26, 135, 147, 150-51; Palmira Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), s. 55, 64-87; Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change, 1590-1699," s. 420-22; Louis Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), s. 325.
13. xiii Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), s. 226.
14. xiv Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe, s. 226-27. Benzer yorumlar şu çalışmada da bulunabilir: Gani Ozbaran, "War Industry Plants of the Ottoman Armed Forces," Revue internationale d'histoire militaire 67 (1988): 67-76; Wayne S. Vucinich, The Ottoman Empire: Its Record and Legacy (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1965), s. 78-87; lu. A. Petrosian, Osmans kaia imperiia mogushchestvo i gibel' (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), s. 134.
15. xv Đ. H. Uzunçarşılı, "Bahriyya," Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition, cild 10., cilt. I (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960), s. 947.
16. xvi Katip Çelebi, Tuhfetul Kibar Fi Esfari' l-Bihar, terc. Orhan Şaik Gökyay (Istanbul: Milli Egitim Basimevi, 1973), s. 123; Necdet Sevinç, Osmanlı Sosyal ve Ekonomik Diizeni (Istanbul: Uçdal Neşriyat, 1985), s. 145-46.
17. xvii Sevinç, Osmanli Sosyal ve Ekonomik Düzeni, p. 147.
18. xviii James C. Davis, ed., Pursuit of Power: Venetian Ambassadors' Reports (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), s. 134.
19. xix Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe, s. 91.
20. xx Jack Beeching, The Galleys at LePanto (London: Hutchinson, 1982), s. 228.
21. xxi Paul Rycaut, The Present State of the Ottoman Empire (1968; tekrar basım, Westmead, England: Gregg International, 1972), s. 213.
22. xxii Rycaut, The Present State of the Ottoman Empire, s. 213.
23. xxiii Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change, 1590-1699," s. 461-63.
24. xxiv Uzunçarşılı, "Bahriyya," s. 948.
25. xxv Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500- 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), s. 87-88; John Francis Guilmartin Jr., Gunpowder and Galleys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), s. 252-73; Andrew C. Hess, The Forgotten Frontier (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), s. 15, 90-91; Paul W Bamford, Fighting Ships and Prisons: The Mediterranean Galleys of France in the Age of Louis XIV (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1973), s. 11-24.
26. xxvi Rhoads Murphey, "The Ottoman Attitude towards the Adoption of Western Technology: The Role of the Efrenci Technicians in Civil and Military Applications," Contributions a'l'histoire economique et sociale de l'empire Ottoman (Leuven: Editions Peeters, 1983), s. 292.
27. xxvii C . H. Imber, "The Navy of Suleyman the Magnificent," Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 232.
28. xxviii Henry Grenville, Observations sur l'etat actuel de l'empire Ottoman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965), s. 54.
29. xxix Grenville, Observations, s. 3-4.
30. xxx Uzunçarşılı, "Bahriyya," s. 947.
31. xxxi Beeching, The Galleys at LePanto, s. 152.
32. xxxii Katip Çelebi, Tuhfetul Kibar Fi Esfari' l-Bihar, s. 185, 190, 225; R. C. Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, 1559-1853 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952), s. 142.
33. xxxiii Anderson, Naval Wars in the Levant, s. 194.
34. xxxiv Grenville, Observations, s. 29.
35. xxxv Uzunçarşılı, "Bahriyya," s. 948.
36. xxxvi Stanford Shaw, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280 1808, cilt. 1 History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), s. 226.
37. xxxvii Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 229.
38. xxxviii B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Ottoman Empire (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1965), s. 25.
39. xxxix Mary Lucille Shay, "The Ottoman Empire from 1720 to 1734 as Revealed in Des patches of the Venetian Baili," University of Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences 27, no. 3 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1944), s. 74-76.
40. xl Baron Francis de Tott, Memoirs of Baron De Tott, vol. 2, pt. 3 (New York: Arno Press, 1973), p. 25.
41. xli Grenville, Observations, p. 3.
42. xlii Petrosian, Osmanskaia imperiia mogushchestvo i gibel', s. 164.
43. xliii Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 154.
44. xliv Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism: 15th -18th Century, cilt. 3: The Perspective of the World (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), s. 477.
45. xlv Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 158.
46. xlvi Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 158.
47. xlvii Nejat Gülen, Dünden Bugüne Bahriyemiz (Istanbul: Kastas A. S. Yayinlari, 1988), s. 118. 48.
48. xlviii Gülen, Dünden Bugüne Bahriyemiz, s. 118-19.
49. xlix Gulen, Dünden Bugüne Bahriyemiz, s. 118.
50. l Gulen, Dünden Bugüne Bahriyemiz, s. 118-19
51. li Murat Han’ın 1422’deki Đstanbul kuşatmasında topçuların olduğuna dair delil vardır ve önemli kalelerde top kullanılmıştır, 1423’te Antalya’da olduğu gibi. Takip eden yıllarda Osmanlılar muhasara toplarından sahra toplarına geçiş yapmıştır. Çünkü II. Murad (1421-51) zamanında 1448 yılında yapılan Đkinci Kosova Savaşında sahra toplarının ilk defa kullanılmıştır. Sevinç, Osmanlı Sosyal ve Ekonomik Düzeni, s. 141-42; Paul Wittek, "The Earliest References to the Use of Firearms by the Ottomans," Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom, ed. David Ayalon (London: Vallentine, 1956), s. 142-43; V. J. Parry, "Barud," Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition, 1:1061; Mark C. Bartusis, The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204-1453 (Phila delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), s. 336-41.
52. lii Đ. H. Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Devleti Teşkilatından Kapukulu Ocakları, cilt. 2 (Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1944), s. 35. Ayrıca bk. Sevinç, Osmanli Sosyal ve Ekonomik Düzeni, s. 142.
53. liii Tursun Bey, Tarih-i Ebu'1-Feth, tercüme. A. Mertol Tulum (Istanbul: Baha matbaasi, 1977), s. 72.
54. liv Parry, "Barud," s. 1063.
55. lv Midhat Sertoglu, Osmanli Tarih Lugati (Istanbul: Enderun Kitabevi, 1986), s. 341.
56. lvi Parry, "Barud," s. 1061.
57. lvii Sertoglu, Osmanlı Tarih Lugati, s. 33.
58. lviii Sevinç, Osmanli Sosyal ve Ekonomik Düzeni, s. 143.
59. lix Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe, s. 186.
60. lx Coles, The Ottoman Impact on Europe, s. 186.
61. lxi Rycaut, The Present State of the Ottoman Empire, s. 200.
62. lxii Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 121.
63. lxiii A . Z. Hertz, "The Ottoman Conquest of Ada Kale 1738," Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 169.
64. lxiv Tott, Memoirs, s. 155.
65. lxv Tott, Memoirs, s. 114.
66. lxvi Tott, Memoirs, s. 97.
67. lxvii Tott, Memoirs, s. 155.
68. lxviii Tott, Memoirs, s. 197.
69. lxix Tott, Memoirs, s. 178.
70. lxx Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 121.
71. lxxi Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 139.
72. lxxii Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 140
73. lxxiii Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, s. 140.
74. lxxiv Rusya örneğinde uzman olan kişi 1760 yılında Berlin’de ele geçirilen Hollanda’lı bir savaş mahkumu idi. William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), s. 167; Krause, Arms and the State, s. 56.
75. lxxv Rusya’nın teknik alandaki gerilemesiyle ilgili geniş bir değerlendirme için bk Hans-Heinrich Nolte, "Tradition des Rückstands: Ein halbes Jahrtausend 'Russland und der Westen'," Vierteiljahr schrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 78 (1991): 344-64; Krause, Arms and the State, s. 55
76. lxxvi Aksan, An Ottoman Statesman, s. 145, 151; William C. Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600-1914 (New York: Free Press, 1992), s. 147-66.
77. lxxvii Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, s. 160.
78. lxxviii Sertoglu, Osmanli Tarih Lugati, s. 34; Sevinç, Osmanli Sosyal ve Ekonomik Düzeni, s. 144.
79. lxxix Sertoglu, Osmanli Tarih Lugati, s. 34.
80. lxxx Turgut Işıksal, "Gunpowder in Ottoman Documents of the Last Half of the 16th Century," International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (winter 1981-82): 81-91.
81. lxxxi Rycaut, The Present State of the Ottoman Empire, s. 200.
82. lxxxii Ismail Hakki Uzunçarşılı, Osmanli Tarihi IV. Cilt. 2.Kisim XVIIII Yüzyil (Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1959), s. 579.
83. lxxxiii Stanford J. Shaw, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III, 1789-1807 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), s. 142.
84. lxxxiv Abdul Karim Rafeq, "The Local Forces in Syria in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), s. 301.
85. lxxxv Uzunçarşılı, Osmanli Tarihi, s. 580.
86. lxxxvi Grenville, Observations, s. 21.
87. lxxxvii Shaw, Between Old and New, s. 142-43.
88. lxxxviii Shaw, Between Old and New, s. 142-44.
89. lxxxix Murphey, "The Ottoman Attitude towards the Adoption of Western Technology," s. 291.
90. xc Rafeq, "The Local Forces in Syria," s. 295.
91. xci Rafeq, "The Local Forces in Syria," p. 297.
92. xcii Grenville, Observations, p. 21.
93. xciii V. J. Parry, "Materials of War in the Ottoman Empire," in Studies in the Economic His tory of the Middle East, ed. M. A. Cook (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 227.
94. xciv Norman Itzkowitz ve Max Mote, Mubadele-An Ottoman-Russian Exchange of Ambassadors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), s. 89.
95. xcv Itzkowitz ve Mote, Mubadele, s. 12.
96. xcvi M. E. Yapp, "The Modernization of Middle Eastern Armies in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative View," War, Technology and Society in the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), s. 344; Christopher Duffy, Russia's Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power, 1700-1800 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), s. 37, 179.
97. xcvii Shaw, Between Old and New, s. 119.
98. xcviii Shaw, Between Old and New, s. 131.
99. xcix Parry, "Barud," s. 1064.
100. c Shaw, Between Old and New, s. 141.
101. ci Aksan, An Ottoman Statesman, s. 130.
102. cii Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia, s. 86-87.
103. ciii Binbaşı Holloway’den General Hutchinson’a gönderilen mektup, El-Honka savaş meydanı, 16 Mayıs 1801, The Keith Papers, ed. Christopher Lloyd, cilt. 2 (London: Navy Records Society, 1950), s. 303.
104. civ Public Record Office (Kew), FO 261/1, Ainslie to Marquis of Carmathen, 9 October 1784, No. 22, and 25 November 1784, No. 25.
105. cv Public Record Office (Kew), FO 261/1, Ainslie to Marquis of Carmathen, 10 Janu ary 1785, No. 1.
106. cvi Jonathan Grant, "The Sword of the Sultan: Ottoman Arms Imports from the Crimean War to World War I," Society for Military History’nin 1997’deki yıllık toplantısında sunulmuş yayınlanmamış tebliğ, Mongomery, Alabama.