The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site

Mustafa Utlu; Mehmet Fatih Akgümüş; Mutluhan Akın

doi:10.46453/jader.1955333

EN TR

The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site

Abstract

This study evaluates the impact of using UAV-derived DSM data at different resolutions and with different rock block geometries on 3D rockfall modeling, a widely used approach in rockfall simulations. The study area, the Başköy settlement, is an active, rockfall-prone region and has been officially declared a disaster area due to ongoing rockfall events. The main objective of this study is to understand the effects of UAV-derived DSM data with resolutions of 25 cm, 50 cm, and 1 m, together with the use of rock blocks of different geometries, on 3D rockfall simulations. EOTA, Equant, and Elongated rock blocks were used in the study, and the volumetric and weight characteristics of these rock blocks were numerically similar to each other to some extent. A total of 9 rockfall models were carried out using the RAMMS::Rockfall software. During the modeling process, 50 rock blocks were simulated from each source zone, for a total of 20,000. As outputs of the modeling, kinetic energy (kJ), velocity (m/s), jump height (m), and number of deposited rocks were obtained. Accordingly, the highest velocity and kinetic energy values were obtained using the 25 cm resolution DSM data, whereas the highest jump height value was only observed for the Equant rock block in the 50 cm DSM dataset. The lowest values were obtained from the 1 m DSM dataset because of its smoother, less detailed topographic representation. Using 4,299 fallen rock blocks identified from the orthomosaic data, the relationships among different “number of deposited rocks” datasets, heat maps, and modeled rock blocks were validated using distance-based analysis. Based on these analyses, the 50 cm DSM resolution and the Elongated block type produced the most accurate results.

Keywords

3D Rockfall modeling, UAV-DSM, Different resolution, Block geometry, Rockfalls

Supporting Institution

This study was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TUBITAK) under Grant Number 125Y054. The authors thank TUBITAK for their support.

Project Number

125Y054

Ethical Statement

The authors declare that the study was conducted in accordance with the relevant ethical standards.

SYM Çözünürlüğü ve Blok Geometrisinin 3B Kaya Düşmesi Modellemesine Etkisi: Başköy Miras Alanı Örneği

Abstract

Bu çalışma, kaya düşmesi simülasyonlarında yaygın olarak kullanılan 3 boyutlu (3D) kaya düşmesi modellemesi üzerinde, İHA (İnsansız Hava Aracı) temelli farklı çözünürlükteki Sayısal Yüzey Modeli (SYM) verilerinin ve farklı kaya bloğu geometrilerinin etkilerini değerlendirmektedir. Çalışma alanı olan Başköy yerleşimi, aktif bir kaya düşmesi bölgesi olup, süregelen kaya düşmesi olayları nedeniyle resmî olarak 'Afete Maruz Bölge' ilan edilmiştir. Çalışmanın temel amacı; 25 cm, 50 cm ve 1 m çözünürlükteki İHA temelli SYM verilerinin, farklı kaya bloğu geometrileriyle birlikte 3D kaya düşmesi simülasyonları üzerindeki tekil ve birleşik etkilerini anlamaktır. Modelleme kapsamında test bloğu (EOTA), Equant (Eşkenar boyutlu) ve Elongated (Uzunlamasına) kaya bloğu geometrileri kullanılmış; bu blokların hacimsel ve ağırlık karakteristikleri sayısal olarak birbirine yakın tutulmuştur. RAMMS::Rockfall yazılımı kullanılarak toplam 9 farklı kaya düşmesi senaryosu modellenmiştir. Modelleme kapsamında, her bir kaynak alandan 100 kaya bloğu bırakılmış ve toplamda 20.000 kaya bloğu simüle edilmiştir. Modelleme sonucunda temel kinematik parametreler olan kinetik enerji (kJ), hız (m/s), sıçrama yüksekliği (m) ve duran (depolanan) kaya bloklarının mekânsal dağılımı elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, en yüksek hız ve kinetik enerji değerlerine 25 cm çözünürlüklü SYM verisiyle ulaşılırken, en yüksek sıçrama yüksekliği yalnızca 50 cm çözünürlüklü SYM veri setindeki 'Equant' kaya bloğunda gözlenmiştir. Topografyayı daha pürüzsüz ve daha az detaylı yansıtması nedeniyle en düşük değerler, 1 m çözünürlüklü SYM veri setinde ortaya çıkmıştır. Ortomozaik verileri üzerinden haritalanan 4.299 gerçek kaya bloğu referans alınarak, farklı modelleme sonuçlarına ait depolanan kaya bloklarının sayısı ve modellenen kaya blokları arasındaki ilişkiler mesafe tabanlı analizlerle doğrulanmıştır. Yapılan doğrulama analizleri sonucunda, saha verileriyle en uyumlu ve en doğru sonuçların 50 cm SYM çözünürlüğü ile 'Elongated' blok tipinde elde edildiği belirlenmiştir.

Keywords

3D Rockfall modeling, UAV-DSM, Different resolution, Block geometry, Rockfalls

Supporting Institution

TÜBİTAK - 125Y054

Project Number

125Y054

Thanks

Bu çalışma, Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma Kurumu (TÜBİTAK) tarafından 125Y054 numaralı proje kapsamında desteklenmiştir. Yazarlar, verdikleri destek için TÜBİTAK’a teşekkür eder.

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Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Natural Hazards

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Mustafa Utlu ^*
0000-0002-7508-4478
Türkiye

Mehmet Fatih Akgümüş
0000-0002-6844-8712
Türkiye

Mutluhan Akın
0000-0002-5752-6949
Türkiye

Publication Date

July 6, 2026

Submission Date

May 20, 2026

Acceptance Date

June 25, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Number: 17

DOI

https://doi.org/10.46453/jader.1955333

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA69ZH37WU

APA

Utlu, M., Akgümüş, M. F., & Akın, M. (2026). The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site. Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 17. https://doi.org/10.46453/jader.1955333

AMA

1.Utlu M, Akgümüş MF, Akın M. The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site. JADER. 2026;(17). doi:10.46453/jader.1955333

Chicago

Utlu, Mustafa, Mehmet Fatih Akgümüş, and Mutluhan Akın. 2026. “The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site”. Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi, nos. 17. https://doi.org/10.46453/jader.1955333.

EndNote

Utlu M, Akgümüş MF, Akın M (July 1, 2026) The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site. Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi 17

IEEE

[1]M. Utlu, M. F. Akgümüş, and M. Akın, “The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site”, JADER, no. 17, July 2026, doi: 10.46453/jader.1955333.

ISNAD

Utlu, Mustafa - Akgümüş, Mehmet Fatih - Akın, Mutluhan. “The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site”. Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi. 17 (July 1, 2026). https://doi.org/10.46453/jader.1955333.

JAMA

1.Utlu M, Akgümüş MF, Akın M. The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site. JADER. 2026. doi:10.46453/jader.1955333.

MLA

Utlu, Mustafa, et al. “The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site”. Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi, no. 17, July 2026, doi:10.46453/jader.1955333.

Vancouver

1.Mustafa Utlu, Mehmet Fatih Akgümüş, Mutluhan Akın. The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site. JADER. 2026 Jul. 1;(17). doi:10.46453/jader.1955333

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- Materials and Methods (Materials used must be listed with their purpose; methods should be detailed enough to allow replication)
- Results (Present data produced in the study)
- Conclusion – Discussion – Recommendations (Summarize findings, compare with existing literature, provide suggestions for future research)
- Acknowledgments (Specify individuals/institutions providing financial or moral support)
- References (Citations must follow APA style, listed alphabetically by author surname)
- Appendices (if any)

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Review Articles
The purpose of review articles is to summarize approaches and ideas of other researchers and provide a synthesis. Review articles should:
- Address a research question developed by the author
- Provide a synthesis of results based on summarized knowledge
- Highlight controversial or incomplete information in the literature
- Suggest potential future research topics

Structure:
- Turkish Title / English Title
- Abstract (Turkish) + 4–5 Keywords
- Abstract (English) + 4–5 Keywords
- Extended Abstract (minimum 1000 words; not required for manuscripts written entirely in English)
- Introduction
- Findings
- Conclusion – Discussion – Recommendations
- References

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Title
Titles must be provided in both Turkish and English, kept as concise as possible, and accurately reflect the content of the manuscript.

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Main Text
Submissions must be in *.doc* or *.docx* format, written in *PT Sans* font, 12-point size, single-spaced, and single-column.
Mathematical expressions and equations must be numbered, aligned to the left, with equation numbers in parentheses aligned to the right.

Order of sections:
- Title (with English equivalent)
- Turkish Abstract + Keywords
- English Abstract + Keywords
- Main Text (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Conclusion, Discussion, Recommendations)
- Acknowledgments
- References and Appendices (if any)

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Abstract
Abstracts must be prepared in both Turkish and English, not exceeding 300 words. They should include the aim, study area (if applicable), materials and methods, main findings, and main conclusions. At the end of the abstract, 4–5 keywords must be provided.
For manuscripts written entirely in English, a Turkish abstract is not required.
Abstracts must be formatted in 8-point font, justified alignment.

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Figures, Tables, and Maps
All visual materials (maps, graphics, diagrams, photographs, etc.) must be labeled as “Figure,” while tables must be labeled as “Table.”
Each visual must include both Turkish and English captions.
Figures must be of high quality, with a minimum resolution of 300 dpi (preferably 600 dpi), in JPEG, PNG, or TIFF format.
All figures must be numbered consecutively and placed in the appropriate location within the text.
Maps must include scale and orientation indicators.

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References and Citations
The **APA citation style** must be used. APA guidelines can be downloaded [here].
In-text citations should be ordered chronologically (from oldest to newest).
The reference list must be arranged alphabetically by author surname, and within each author’s works, chronologically (from oldest to newest).

Ethical Principles and Publication Policy

Publication Ethics and Responsibilities

The publication processes applied in the *Journal of Geomorphological Research (JADER)* form the foundation for the impartial and respected development and dissemination of knowledge. These processes directly reflect the quality of the work of authors and their supporting institutions. Peer-reviewed studies embody and reinforce the scientific method. Therefore, it is essential that all stakeholders in the process (authors, readers, researchers, publishers, reviewers, and editors) adhere to ethical standards. Within the framework of publication ethics, JADER expects all stakeholders to uphold the following responsibilities.

The ethical duties and responsibilities outlined below have been prepared in accordance with the guidelines and policies published by the **Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)**.

Publishing an article in a peer-reviewed journal is a fundamental building block in the development of a coherent and respected network of knowledge. This reflects directly on the quality of the work of authors and their institutions. Peer-reviewed articles support and shape scientific methods. Therefore, agreement on expected ethical standards is important for all parties involved in publishing: authors, journal editors, reviewers, and publishers.

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### 1. Authors’ Ethical Responsibilities
- Copyright cannot be claimed for manuscripts submitted to the journal.
- Submitted manuscripts must be original.
- References must be complete, and all cited sources must be properly acknowledged.
- Authors wishing to withdraw a manuscript must submit a written request.
- Potential conflicts of interest must be disclosed.
- Authors may be asked to provide raw data during the review process and must be prepared to share it with the editorial or scientific board.
- If authors discover an error in their published, early-view, or under-review manuscript, they must inform the editor or publisher and cooperate in correction or retraction.
- Authorship responsibilities cannot be changed once the review process has begun (e.g., adding/removing authors, changing author order).
- Manuscripts submitted to JADER must comply with research and publication ethics.

**Violations of research and publication ethics include:**
- *Plagiarism*: Presenting others’ ideas, methods, data, applications, writings, figures, or works without proper citation.
- *Fabrication*: Producing data not based on research or presenting false data.
- *Falsification*: Manipulating research records or data, misrepresenting methods, or altering results.
- *Duplicate publication*: Publishing the same results in multiple works.
- *Salami slicing*: Fragmenting research results into multiple publications without proper cross-referencing.
- *Unjust authorship*: Including individuals without contribution or excluding contributors.
- *Other violations*: Failure to acknowledge support, disregard for human/animal ethics, misuse of resources, or making unfounded accusations of misconduct.

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### 2. Editors’ Ethical Duties and Responsibilities
Editors follow COPE’s *Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors*. Their responsibilities include:
- Ensuring the quality and integrity of published works.
- Supporting academic freedom and intellectual property rights.
- Maintaining transparency in corrections and clarifications.
- Upholding impartiality in relations with readers, authors, reviewers, and the editorial board.
- Implementing and monitoring the double-blind peer-review process.
- Protecting personal data and ensuring compliance with human and animal rights.
- Preventing misconduct and addressing complaints constructively.
- Safeguarding against political or commercial influence.
- Managing conflicts of interest to guarantee independent and unbiased publication decisions.

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### 3. Reviewers’ Responsibilities
- All manuscripts are evaluated under a **double-blind peer-review system**.
- At least two reviewers assess each manuscript; if one rejects, a third reviewer or the editor makes the final decision.
- Reviews must be objective, impartial, and constructive.
- Reviewers must be experts in the subject matter.
- Conflicts of interest must be avoided.
- Reviewed manuscripts must remain confidential and destroyed after evaluation.
- Reviews must focus solely on content, free from bias related to nationality, gender, religion, politics, or commercial interests.
- Reviewers must report any misconduct (e.g., plagiarism) to the editor immediately.

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### 4. Publisher’s Ethical Responsibilities
- JADER does not charge authors any fees.
- Editorial decisions are independent of economic or political considerations.
- The journal protects copyright and maintains records of all published works.
- The database is openly accessible online.
- Measures are taken against plagiarism, citation manipulation, and unethical practices.

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### 5. Plagiarism Detection Policy
All manuscripts are screened using **intihal.net** and **iThenticate** to confirm originality and absence of plagiarism.

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### 6. Reporting Ethical Misconduct
If you notice a significant error or unethical behavior in a published article, please contact:
📧 **jader@jd.org.tr** or **curebal@balikesir.edu.tr**.
Complaints are welcomed as opportunities for improvement, and JADER aims to respond promptly and constructively.

Indexes

Journal Boards

Scientific Publication Coordinator

Musa ULUDAĞ

Türkiye Physical Geography, Physical Geography

Editor in Chief

İsa CÜREBAL

Physical Geography and Environmental Geology, Natural Hazards, Drainage, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Quaternary Environments

Editors

Mesut ŞIMŞEK

Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes

Murat POYRAZ

Geographic Information Systems, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Physical Geography

Language Editor

Cengiz YILDIRIM

Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Quaternary Environments, Structural Geology and Tectonics

Layout Editor

Abdulkadir DURAN

Geographic Information Systems, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes

Muhammed Mustafa ÖZDEL

Conservation and Biodiversity, Ecological Impacts of Climate Change and Ecological Adaptation, Climatology

Editorial Adviser Board

Ahmet Evren ERGINAL

Ecological Applications, Marine Geology and Geophysics , General Geology, Geoarcheology , Geochronology

Hüseyin TUROGLU

Regional Planning, Watershed Management, Hydrography, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Climatology

Uğur DOĞAN

Quaternary Environments, Palaeogeography, Physical Geography

Murat TÜRKEŞ

Biogeography and Phylogeography, Environmental Education and Extension, Physical Geography and Environmental Geology, Biogeography, Watershed Management, Hydrography, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Physical Geography, Climatology

Mustafa Hakan YIĞITBAŞIOĞLU

Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Physical Geography

M. Kirami ÖLGEN

Health Sciences, Physical Geography

Tuncer DEMIR

Physical Geography and Environmental Geology, Watershed Management, Hydrography, Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Physical Geography, Climatology

Abdullah SOYKAN

Geomorphology and Earth Surface Processes, Physical Geography

Jeomorfolojik Araştırmalar Dergisi ( JADER ) - Journal of Geomorphological Researches

TR Dizin - DOAJ - Crossref - Google Scholar

Turkish Society for Geomorphology

www.jd.org.tr

The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site

The Impact of DSM Resolutİon and Block Geometry on 3D Rockfall Modeling: The Case of Başköy Heritage Site

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SYM Çözünürlüğü ve Blok Geometrisinin 3B Kaya Düşmesi Modellemesine Etkisi: Başköy Miras Alanı Örneği

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Aim & Scope

Author Guidelines

Ethical Principles and Publication Policy

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Citation Indexes

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Journal Boards

Scientific Publication Coordinator

Editor in Chief

Editors

Language Editor

Layout Editor

Editorial Adviser Board