Short Chain Fatty Acid Production from Brussels Sprouts, Red Cabbage, and White Cabbage Following In vitro Digestion and Fecal Fermentation

Year 2026, Volume: 7 Issue: 1, 56 - 67, 27.03.2026

Seda Arioglu Tuncil

https://doi.org/10.56430/japro.1884761

https://izlik.org/JA78EW36BC

Abstract

White cabbage, red cabbage, and brussels sprouts, belonging to the Brassica genus, are widely consumed vegetables and serve as important dietary fiber sources. The aim of this study was to compare the dietary fiber characteristics of these cabbage cultivars and to evaluate their fermentation behavior in the gut, with a particular focus on short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. Free sugar contents of each cabbage cultivar, specifically the levels of glucose, fructose, and sucrose, were measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Lyophilized red cabbage, white cabbage, and brussels sprouts were subjected to in vitro upper gastrointestinal digestion to obtain dietary fiber fractions, which were subsequently characterized using Gas Chromatography /Mass Spectrometry and spectrophotometry. The obtained dietary fibers were then subjected to in vitro fecal fermentation assay using fecal material collected from three healthy donors. SCFA production and total gas formation were monitored at 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h of fermentation. The results showed that total free sugar contents of the samples were statistically (P < 0.05) different from each other with white cabbage having the highest free sugar content (3.6%, wet basis), followed by red cabbage (2.9%, wet basis), and brussels sprouts (2.3%, wet basis).  Uronic acid and glucose were the dominant monosaccharide moieties of dietary fibers across all cabbage cultivars. However, dietary fibers of brussels sprouts were distinguished by significantly (P < 0.05) lower glucose but higher galactose and arabinose contents, suggesting a higher proportion of soluble dietary fiber. Accordingly, dietary fibers from brussels sprouts exhibited a faster fermentation rate than those from white and red cabbage. Interestingly, dietary fibers from all cabbage cultivars produced acetate and butyrate at levels comparable to inulin, a well-known butyrate-promoting prebiotic, though fermentation occurred at a slower rate. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that dietary fibers from white cabbage, red cabbage, and brussels sprouts can stimulate microbial SCFA production in a species-specific manner, highlighting their potential physiological relevance for human gut health.

Keywords

Acetate , Brassica species , Butyrate , Cabbage cultivars , In vitro fecal fermentation , Propionate

Ethical Statement

The research involving human stool collection and use were reviewed and approved by the Scientific Research Ethics Committee of Health Sciences of Necmettin Erbakan University (application #29078; approval #2026/1314).

References

• Arioglu-Tuncil, S. (2025). A comparative assessment of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) and chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) in modulating fecal microbiota composition and function in vitro. Food Science & Nutrition, 13(5), e70243. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.70243
• Arioglu-Tuncil, S., Deemer, D., Lindemann, S. R., & Tunçil, Y. E. (2025). Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) flours dietary fibers differentially impact fecal microbiota composition and metabolic outputs in vitro. Food Science & Nutrition, 13(1), e4724. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.4724
• Ashfaq, F., Butt, M. S., Nazir, A., & Jamil, A. (2018). Compositional analysis of Pakistani green and red cabbage. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 55(1), 191-196. https://doi.org/10.21162/PAKJAS/18.6547
• Atanasova, E. (2008). Effect of nitrogen sources on the nitrogenous forms and accumulation of amino acid in head cabbage. Plant, Soil and Environment, 54(2), 66-71. https://doi.org/10.17221/438-PSE
• Batista, C. F. T., Da Silva, C. O., Melo, C. M. T., Tassi, E. M. M., & Pascoal, G. B. (2016). Nutritional and physicochemical changes of white cabbage (Brassica oleracea) after minimal processing and during storage. Demetra: Food, Nutrition & Health, 12(1), 305-318. https://doi.org/10.12957/demetra.2017.22115
• Bishehsari, F., Engen, P. A., Preite, N. Z., Tuncil, Y. E., Naqib, A., Shaikh, M., Rossi, M., Wilber, S., Green, S. J., Hamaker, B. R., Khazaie, K., Voigt, R. M., Forsyth, C. B., & Keshavarzian, A. (2018). Dietary fiber treatment corrects the composition of gut microbiota, promotes SCFA production, and suppresses colon carcinogenesis. Genes, 9(2), 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes9020102
• Doniec, J., Florkiewicz, A., Duliński, R., & Filipiak-Florkiewicz, A. (2022). Impact of hydrothermal treatments on nutritional value and mineral bioaccessibility of brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera). Molecules, 27(6), 1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27061861
• Du, Y., He, C., An, Y., Huang, Y., Zhang, H., Fu, W., Wang, M., Shan, Z., Xie, J., Yang, Y., & Zhao, B. (2024). The role of short chain fatty acids in inflammation and body health. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(13), 7379. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137379
• Facchin, S., Bertin, L., Bonazzi, E., Lorenzon, G., De Barba, C., Barberio, B., Zingone, F., Maniero, D., Scarpa, M., Ruffolo, C., Angriman, I., & Savarino, E. V. (2024). Short-chain fatty acids and human health: From metabolic pathways to current therapeutic implications. Life, 14(5), 559. https://doi.org/10.3390/life14050559
• Flamm, G., Glinsmann, W., Kritchevsky, D., Prosky, L., & Roberfroid, M. (2001). Inulin and oligofructose as dietary fiber: A review of the evidence. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 41(5), 353-362. https://doi.org/10.1080/20014091091841
• Hosseini, E., Grootaert, C., Verstraete, W., & Van de Wiele, T. (2011). Propionate as a health-promoting microbial metabolite in the human gut. Nutrition Reviews, 69(5), 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00388.x
• Jeon, K. W., Kim, M. G., Heo, S. H., Boo, K. H., Kim, J. H., & Kim, C. S. (2022). Comparative analysis of active components and antioxidant activities of Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Journal of Applied Biological Chemistry, 65(4), 413-419. https://doi.org/10.3839/jabc.2022.053
• Kalala, G., Kambashi, B., Everaert, N., Beckers, Y., Richel, A., Pachikian, B., Neyrinck, A. M., Delzenne, N. M., & Bindelle, J. (2018). Characterization of fructans and dietary fibre profiles in raw and steamed vegetables. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 69(6), 682-689. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2017.1412404
• Mann, E. R., Lam, Y. K., & Uhlig, H. H. (2024). Short-chain fatty acids: Linking diet, the microbiome and immunity. Nature Reviews Immunology, 24(8), 577-595. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01014-8
• Mariotti, F., Tomé, D., & Mirand, P. P. (2008). Converting nitrogen into protein—beyond 6.25 and Jones’ factors. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 48(2), 177-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408390701279749
• Mejías, N., Vega-Galvez, A., Gomez-Perez, L. S., Pasten, A., Uribe, E., Cortés, A., Valenzuela-Barra, G., Camus, J., Delporte, C., & Bernal, G. (2024). Health-promoting properties of processed red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata f. rubra): Effects of drying methods on bio-compound retention. Foods, 13(6), 830. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13060830
• Nowak, K., Rohn, S., & Halagarda, M. (2025). Impact of cooking techniques on the dietary fiber profile in selected cruciferous vegetables. Molecules, 30(3), 590. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30030590
• Nyman, M. (2002). Fermentation and bulking capacity of indigestible carbohydrates: The case of inulin and oligofructose. British Journal of Nutrition, 87(S2), S163-S168. https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn/2002533
• Pettolino, F. A., Walsh, C., Fincher, G. B., & Bacic, A. (2012). Determining the polysaccharide composition of plant cell walls. Nature Protocols, 7(9), 1590-1607. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2012.081
• Podsȩdek, A., Sosnowska, D., Redzynia, M., & Anders, B. (2006). Antioxidant capacity and content of Brassica oleracea dietary antioxidants. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 41(Supplement_1), 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01260.x
• Rana, M. K. (2016). Salad crops: Leaf-type crops. In B. Caballero, P. M. Finglas & F. Toldrá (Eds.), Encyclopedia of food and health (pp. 673-678). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00603-6
• Ríos-Covián, D., Ruas-Madiedo, P., Margolles, A., Gueimonde, M., De los Reyes-Gavilán, C. G., & Salazar, N. (2016). Intestinal short chain fatty acids and their link with diet and human health. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 185. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00185
• Roberfroid, M. (1993). Dietary fiber, inulin, and oligofructose: A review comparing their physiological effects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 33(2), 103-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399309527616
• Rumpagaporn, P., Reuhs, B. L., Kaur, A., Patterson, J. A., Keshavarzian, A., & Hamaker, B. R. (2015). Structural features of soluble cereal arabinoxylan fibers associated with a slow rate of in vitro fermentation by human fecal microbiota. Carbohydrate Polymers, 130, 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2015.04.041
• Russell, W. R., Gratz, S. W., Duncan, S. H., Holtrop, G., Ince, J., Scobbie, L., Duncan, G., Johnstone, A. M., Lobley, G. E., Wallace, R. J., Duthie, G. G., & Flint, H. J. (2011). High-protein, reduced-carbohydrate weight-loss diets promote metabolite profiles likely to be detrimental to colonic health. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(5), 1062-1072. https://doi.org/10.3945/AJCN.110.002188
• Şahin, M., Arioglu-Tuncil, S., Ünver, A., Deemer, D., Lindemann, S. R., & Tunçil, Y. E. (2023). Dietary fibers of tree nuts differ in composition and distinctly impact the fecal microbiota and metabolic outcomes in vitro. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 71(25), 9762-9771. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.3c01415
• Simpson, M. G. (2010). Diversity and classification of flowering plants: Eudicots. In M. G. Simpson (Ed.), Plant systematics (pp. 275-448). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50008-7
• Suojala, T. (2003). Compositional and quality changes in white cabbage during harvest period and storage. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 78(6), 821-827. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2003.11511704
• Tuncil, Y. E., Nakatsu, C. H., Kazem, A. E., Arioglu-Tuncil, S., Reuhs, B., Martens, E. C., & Hamaker, B. R. (2017). Delayed utilization of some fast-fermenting soluble dietary fibers by human gut microbiota when presented in a mixture. Journal of Functional Foods, 32, 347-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFF.2017.03.001
• Tuncil, Y. E., Thakkar, R. D., Arioglu-Tuncil, S., Hamaker, B. R., & Lindemann, S. R. (2018). Fecal microbiota responses to bran particles are specific to cereal type and in vitro digestion methods that mimic upper gastrointestinal tract passage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(47), 12580-12593. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b03469
• USDA. (2024). FoodData Central. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov
• Wang, M., Wichienchot, S., He, X., Fu, X., Huang, Q., & Zhang, B. (2019). In vitro colonic fermentation of dietary fibers: Fermentation rate, short-chain fatty acid production and changes in microbiota. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 88, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2019.03.005
• Wennberg, M., Engqvist, G., & Nyman, M. (2002). Effects of harvest time and storage on dietary fibre components in various cultivars of white cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 82(12), 1405-1411. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1201
• Xiang, M. S. W., Tan, J. K., & Macia, L. (2019). Fatty acids, gut bacteria, and immune cell function. In V. B. Patel (Ed.), The molecular nutrition of fats (pp. 151-164). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811297-7.00011-1
• Xu, H., Reuhs, B. L., Cantu-Jungles, T. M., Tuncil, Y. E., Kaur, A., Terekhov, A., Martens, E. C., & Hamaker, B. R. (2022). Corn arabinoxylan has a repeating structure of subunits of high branch complexity with slow gut microbiota fermentation. Carbohydrate Polymers, 289, 119435. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2022.119435
• Yin, P., Du, T., Yi, S., Zhang, C., Yu, L., Tian, F., Chen, W., & Zhai, Q. (2023). Response differences of gut microbiota in oligofructose and inulin are determined by the initial gut Bacteroides/Bifidobacterium ratios. Food Research International, 174(Part 1), 113598. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2023.113598
• Zhang, L., Liu, C., Jiang, Q., & Yin, Y. (2021). Butyrate in energy metabolism: There is still more to learn. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 32(3), 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2020.12.003