Strategies of Refugee Children in Response to Ethnic Categorization and Social Exclusion in Konya

Abstract

In this paper, we focus on how refugee children from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Sudan resettled in Konya, Turkey, use coping strategies in response to the ethnic categorization and exclusion policies of the local population. Employing ethnographic methodology combined with grounded theory, we conducted participant observations, as well as in–depth interviews with 65 refugee children. The family members of the children, as well as the local population, were also within the scope of the study. Furthermore, we conducted extensive interviews and observations in two different religious secondary schools attended by refugees. We aimed to understand their local experiences and intergroup relations by expanding the field. As a result, we observed that these children resisted societal pressure by developing various coping strategies such as emphasizing Muslim identity, attending schools as spaces for socializing, choosing to speak Turkish, standing with the strong, and building shared enjoyment or joining existing ones. These findings show that the refugee children do not passively submit to the conditions they find themselves in and do not simply embrace the impositions of power as they are.

Keywords

• refugee children
• social exclusion
• ethnic identity
• coping strategy
• ethnography
• Turkey

References

1. Abraham, R., Lien, L. & Hanssen, I. (2018). Coping, resilience and posttraumatic growth among Eritrean female refugees living in Norwegian asylum reception centres: a qualitative study. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(4), 359-366. google scholar
2. Akkır, R. (2019). Sekülerleşme ve göç ilişkisi: suriyeli mülteciler örneği [The relationship between secularization and migration: the example of Syrian refugees]. Bilimname, 2, 469-499. google scholar
3. Al-Shatanawi T. N, Khader Y, ALSalamat H., Hadid, L., Jarboua, A., Amarneh, O. A., ...., Alrabadi, N. (2023). Identifying psychosocial google scholar
4. problems, needs, and coping mechanisms of adolescent Syrian refugees in Jordan. Frontiers in Psychiatry. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1184098. google scholar
5. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Mass.: Addison-Wesley. google scholar
6. Alzoubi, F. A., Al-Smadi, A. M., & Gougazeh, Y. M. (2019). Coping strategies used by Syrian refugees in Jordan. Clinical Nursing Research, 28(4), 396-421. google scholar
7. Arenliu, A., Weine, S. M., Bertelsen, N., Saad, R., & Abdulaziz, H. (2020). War and displacement stressors and coping mechanisms of Syrian urban refugee families living in Istanbul. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(4), 392-401. google scholar
8. Arıcıoğlu, A., & Avcı, R. (2021). Suriyeli mülteci çocuklarda farklılıkların kabulü ve çocukların saldırganlık davranışlarına yönelik önleyici rehberlik hizmetleri [Acceptance of differences in Syrian refugee children and preventive guidance services for students’ aggressive behavior]. Milli Eğitim, 50(1), 765-784. google scholar

9. Barth, F. (1994). Ethnic groups and boundaries: the social organization of culture difference. Illinois: Waveland. google scholar
10. Bauman, Z. (2017). Nesnesini ve ismini arayan semptomlar [Symptoms in search of an object and a name]. Heinrich Geiselberger (ed.). Büyük Gerileme: Zamanımızın Ruh Hali Üstüne Uluslararası Bir Tartışma [The great regression] (Trans. Merisa Şahin, Aslı Biçen, Ahmet Nüvit Bingöl, Orhan Kılıç). İstanbul: Metis: pp. 30-43. google scholar
11. (2016). Strangers at Our Door. The UK: Polity. google scholar
12. (2014). Identity: Coversations with Benedetto Vecchi. The UK: Polity Press. google scholar
13. Behrendt, M., Lietaert, I., Bal, S., & Derluyn, I. (2024). Coping strategies of unaccompanied refugee minors shortly after arrival in Belgium. Transcultural Psychiatry, 6(1), 47-59. google scholar
14. Benson, G. O., Sun, F., Hodge, D. R., & Androff, D. K. (2012). Religious coping and acculturation stress among Hindu Bhutanese: a study of newly-resettled refugees in the United States. International Social Work, 55, 538-553. google scholar
15. Bircan, T., & Sunata, U. (2015). Educational assessment of Syrian refugees in Turkey.Migration Letters, 12(3), 226-237. google scholar
16. Bora, T. (2014). Sunuş. R. Horak, W. Reiter & T. Bora (ed.) Futbol ve Kültürü: Takımlar, Taraftarlar, Endüstri, Efsaneler [Football and its culture: teams, fans, industry, legends], p. 1-18, İstanbul: İletişim. google scholar
17. Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. google scholar
18. Burnett, K. (2013). Feeling like an outsider: a case study of refugee identity in the Czech Republic. UNHCR, Research Paper No. 251. google scholar
19. Castel, R. (2019). Ücretli çalışmanın tarihçesi: sosyal sorunun dönüşümü. İstanbul: İletişim. google scholar
20. Chambers, I. (1994). Migrancy, culture, identity. The UK: Routledge. google scholar
21. Chandra, K. (2006). What is ethnic identity and does it matter? Annual Reviews, 9, 397-424. google scholar
22. Charmaz, K., & Mitchell, R.G. (2007). Grounded theory in ethnography. In Atkinson, P., Coffey, A., Delamont, S., Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. (eds.) Handbook of Ethnography. London: SAGE, pp. 160-174. google scholar
23. Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. London: SAGE. google scholar
24. Corsaro, W.A. (2005). The sociology of childhood. USA: Pine Forge. google scholar
25. Coşgun, B. (2019). Self-regulation in at-risk Children: exploringfactors that affect cognitive functions in refugee children (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
26. Çağış, P. (2022). Geçici Koruma Altindaki Suriyeli Çocuklarin Sosyal Uyumunda Spor Faktörünün İncelenmesi [An examination of the role of sports in the social integration of Syrian children under temporary protection] (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
27. Daud, A., af Klinteberg, B., & Rydelius, P. A. (2008). Resilience and vulnerability among refugee children of traumatized and non-traumatized parents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2(1), 7. google scholar
28. de Certeau (2011). The practice of everyday life. Berkeley: University of California Press. google scholar
29. Doğan, H., & Buz, S. (2022). Göç sürecinde ergen olmak. ODÜSOBİAD, 12(3), 2797-2822. google scholar
30. Eliasson, I. (2015). In different sports worlds: socialisation among children, coaches, and parents in girls’ and boys’ football teams. European Journal for Sport and Society, 12(2), s. 187-214. google scholar
31. Elsner, B. (2014). Teknik, taktik, sistem: futbol oyununun karakteristiği üzerine [Technique, tactic, system: on the characteristics of the football game]. R. Horak, W. Reiter & T. Bora (ed.) Futbol ve Kültürü: Takımlar, Taraftarlar, Endüstri, Efsaneler [Football and its culture: teams, fans, industry, legends], p. 27-37, İstanbul: İletişim. google scholar
32. Emerson, R., Fretz, R. I. & Shaw, L.L. (1995). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. google scholar
33. Erdoğan, M. (2022). Suriyeliler barometresi SB-2021: Suriyelilerle uyum içinde yaşamın çerçevesi [Syrians barometer SB-2021: the framework of living in harmony with Syrians]. Ankara: Eğiten Kitap. google scholar
34. Eroğlu, M. (2020). Etnik kimlik, savaş ve göç olgularının çocuklar ve ergenler üzerindeki psikolojik etkileri [Ethnic identity, war, and migration phenomena: The psychological effects on children and adolescents]. IJONASS, 4(1), 94-105. google scholar
35. Ersoy, A. F., Turan, N. (2019). Sığınmacı ve göçmen öğrencilerde sosyal dışlanma ve çeteleşme [Social exclusion and gang formation among refugee and immigrant students]. Third Sector Social Economic Review, 54(2), 828-840. google scholar
36. Esenoğlu, B. N. (2021). Mülteci çocukların psikolojik sağlamlık ve umut düzeyleri arasindaki ilişki [The relationship between psychological resilience and hope levels in refugee children]. (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
37. Fanon, F. (2008). Black skin, white masks. New York: Grove Press. google scholar
38. Fırat, M., Ataca, B. (2020). When does imagined contact reduce prejudice? Social Psychology, 51(4), 254-266. google scholar
39. Finklestein, M., Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2012). Coping strategies of Ethiopian immigrants in Israel: Association with PTSD and dissociation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53, 490-498. google scholar
40. Geertz C. (1963). The integrative revolution. C. Geertz (ed.), Old Societies and New States. New York: Free. google scholar
41. Gencer, T.E. (2019). Göç süreçlerindeki çocukların karşılanamayan gereksinimleri, haklara erişimleri ve beklentileri: ankara ve hatay’da yaşayan suriyeli çocuklar örneği [Unmet needs, access to rights, and expectations of children in migration processes: The case of Syrian children living in Ankara and Hatay]. (Doctorate Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
42. Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A. L. (2006 [1967]). The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. New Brunswick: Aldine Transection. google scholar
43. Glazer, N., & Moynihan, D.P. (1963). Beyond the melting pot: the Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City. Massachusetts: M.I.T. and Harvard. google scholar
44. Goodall, C. (2015, April). Shouting towards the Sky: the role of religious individuals, communities, organisations and institutions in support for refugees and asylum seekers. UNHCR, Research Paper No. 275. google scholar
45. Goulbourne, H., Reynolds, T., Solomos, J. & Zontini, E. (2010). Transnational families: ethnicities, identities and social capital. London: Routledge. google scholar
46. Grosby, S. (1994). The verdict of history: the inexpungeable tie of primordiality - A response to Eller and Coughlan. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17 (2), 164-71. google scholar
47. Groark, C., Sclare, I., & Raval, H. (2010). Understanding the experiences and emotional needs of unaccompanied asylum-seeking adolescents in the UK. Clinial Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16(3), 421-442. google scholar
48. Göç İdaresi Başkanlığı [GİB] (2023, 21 September). Geçici koruma, 14 June [Temporary protection]. Retrieved from: https://www.goc.gov.tr/gecici-koruma5638 google scholar
49. Göktuna Yaylacı, F., Serpil, H., & Yaylacı, A. F. (2017). Paydaşların gözünden mülteci ve sığınmacılarda eğitim: Eskişehir Örneği. Meditertanean Journal of Educational Research, 22, 101-117. google scholar
50. Guo, Y., Maitra, S., & Guo, S. (2019). “I belong to nowhere”: Syrian refugee children’s perspectives on school integration. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 14(1), s. 89-105. google scholar
51. Güdürü, F. (2021). Yaz kur’an kursları’nda mülteci çocuklar problemi: Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya ve Uşak örneği [The issue of refugee children in summer Qur’an courses: The case of Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya, and Uşak]. (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
52. Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: principles in practice. The UK: Routledge. google scholar
53. Hechter, M. (1986). A rational choice approach to race and ethnic relations. D. Mason & J. Rex (eds.) Theories of race and ethnic relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University. google scholar
54. Hobsbawm, E. (1990). Nations and nationalism since 1780. Cambridge: Cambridge University. google scholar
55. Hutchinson, J, & Smith, A.D. (1996). Preface. J. Hutchinson & A. D. Smith (eds.), Ethnicity. Oxford, New York: Oxford University. google scholar
56. IOM (2021). World migration report 2022. Geneva. google scholar
57. James, W. (1989). The making of black identities. R. Samuel (ed). Patriotism: the making and unmaking of British national identity. London and New York: Routledge, p. 234-244. google scholar
58. Kaya, A. (2002) Aesthetics of diaspora: contemporary minstrels in Turkish Berlin. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28(1):43-62. google scholar
59. Kok, J. K., Khor, K., Hon, K. Y., & van Schalkwyk, G. J. (2021). Refugee children in Malaysia: perceptions of family and coping mechanisms. The Qualitative Report, 26(12), 3926-47. google scholar
60. Koyuncu, A. (2014). Kentin yeni misafirleri Suriyeliler [The new guests of the city: Syrians]. Konya: Çizgi. google scholar
61. Kurt Akkoyun, F. S. (2020). Resilience of syrian children and adolescents living in Turkey. (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
62. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer. google scholar
63. Leppna, M., Szente, J. (2013). Refugee children’s fears and coping mechanisms: a preliminary investigation. Vistas online. Article 68. google scholar
64. Löw, M. (2016). The sociology of space: materiality, social structures and action. Trans. Donald Goodwin. New York: Palgrave Macmillian. google scholar
65. Malesevic, S. (2010). Ethnicity in time and space: a conceptual analysis. Critical Sociology, 37(1), 67-82. google scholar
66. Martinez, A., & Sarmiento, C. B. (2022, May 10). Why religion-based support is vital for Afghan refugees. United Stated Institude of Peace. Retrieved from: https://www.usip.org/blog/2022/05/why-religion-based-support-vital-afghan-refugees google scholar
67. Matthews, J. (2008). Schooling and settlement: refugee education in Australia. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 18(1), 31-45. google scholar
68. Mayall, B. (2010). Towards a sociology for childhood: thinking from children’s lives. London: Open University. google scholar
69. Oppenchaim, N., & Thalineau, A. (2023). "To be French is to be white": children’s uses of ethno-racial categorizations in France. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 46(10), 2043-2066. google scholar
70. Paerregaard, K. (2019). VIEWPOINT: Grasping the fear: how xenophobia intersects with climatephobia and robotphobia and how their co-production creates feelings of abandonment, self-pity and destruction. Migration Letters, 16(4), 647-652. google scholar
71. Parker, J. D. A., & Endler, N. S. (1992). Coping with coping assessment: a critical review. European Journal of Personality, 6(5), 321-344. google scholar
72. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 65-85. google scholar
73. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(6), 922-934. google scholar
74. Phinney, J. S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: an interactional perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 493-510. google scholar
75. Pinson, H., & Arnot, M. (2010). Education, asylum and the ‘non-citizen’ child. London: Palgrave Macmillan. google scholar
76. Sarıpınar, E. (2019). Mülteci çocukların duygusal yılmazlıklarının ve sosyal destek algılarının incelenmesi: karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma [An examination of refugee children’s emotional resilience and perceived social support: A comparative study]. (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
77. Sarman, A. (2022). Mülteci çocukların eğitim sorunları ve çocuk hemşireliği yaklaşımları [Educational challenges of refugee children and paediatric nursing approaches]. Göç Dergisi, 9(3), 379-388. google scholar
78. Selvanathan, H. P., Techakesari, P., Tropp, L. R., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). whites for racial justice: how contact with black Americans predicts support for collective action among white Americans. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 21 (6), 893 - 912. google scholar
79. Serim S. (2019). The educational well-being ofSyrian refugee children in public schools: a qualitative study in İstanbul. (Master Dissertation). Retrieved from: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/ google scholar
80. SETA, TheirWorld. (2017). Breaking the barriers: getting Syrian children into school in Turkey. Research Report. google scholar
81. Sleijpen, M., Boeije, H. R., Kleber, R. J., & Mooren, T. (2016). Between power and powerlessness: a meta-ethnography of sources of resilience in young refugees. Ethnicity and Health, 21(2), 158-180. google scholar
82. Small, E., Kim, Y. K., & Mengo, C. (2017). Aggression behavior and substance use among immigrant children: mediating effect of antisocial attitudes. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 16(1), 3-22. google scholar
83. Şimşek, D. (2016). Ulusaşırı kimlikler: Londra’da Kıbrıslı Türk, Kürt ve Türk göçmen çocukları. İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi. google scholar
84. Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information, 13(2), s. 65-93. google scholar
85. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. S. Worchel & W.G. Austin (eds.) Psychology of intergroup relation. Chicago: Hall, p. 7-24. google scholar
86. Thorleifsson, C. (2014, September) Coping strategies among self-settled Syrians in Lebanon. FMR, 47. Retrieved from: https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/syria/thorleifsson.pdf google scholar
87. Tippens, J. A. (2016). Urban Congolese refugees in Kenya: the contingencies of coping and resilience in a context marked by structural vulnerability. Qualitative Health Research, 27, 1090-1103. google scholar
88. UNHCR (1994). Refugee Children: Guidelines on protection and care. Geneva: UNHCR. google scholar
89. UNHCR, UNICEF, UNODC, IOM, OHCHR, OSRSG-VAC, & OSCE (2022). Protecting the rights of the children on the movie in times of crisis. Adcocay Brief. google scholar
90. Van Den Berghe, P. L. (1995). Does race matter? Nations and Nationalism, 1(3), 357-368. google scholar
91. Van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. London: Routledge. google scholar
92. Veerman, G. J., & Platt, L. (2021). School composition and multiple ethnic identities of migrant-origin adolescents in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(16), 106-125. google scholar
93. Verkuyten, M., & Thijs, J. (2002). Racist victimization among children in The Netherlands: the effect of ethnic group and school. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25(2), 310-331. google scholar
94. Wimmer, A., & Glick Schiller, N. (2002). Methodological nationalism and beyond: nation-state building, migration and the social sciences. Global Networks, 2(4), 301-334. google scholar
95. Windle, J. (2017). The public positioning of refugees in the quasi-education market: linking mediascapes and social geographies of schooling. International Journal of Inclusive Education 21(11), 1128-1141. google scholar
96. Yinger, J.M. (1997). Ethnicity: source of strength? Source of conflict? USA: State University of New York. google scholar
97. YUKK (2013, 11 April). Yabancılar ve uluslararası koruma kanunu [Law on foreigners and international protection]. Retrieved from: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuatmetin/1.5.6458.pdf google scholar