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Women’s Labor Force Participation and Inequality in Turkey

Year 2021, Issue: 64, 91 - 104, 29.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2021-903123

Abstract

The increasing income inequalities in many societies since the 1980s are generally considered within the framework of concepts such as globalization, international trade, technological changes, or transformations in the distribution of income and wages. However, the significant increase in women’s participation in the labor force represents another necessary social and economic transformation since the 1980s apart from the dramatic increases in inequalities. Some qualitative changes have also followed as women become a segment of waged labor in increasing numbers: for example, the feminization of the labor market. The emergence of women as paid labor and the contribution of their earnings to family incomes have undoubtedly caused transformations in income and wage distribution in many societies. This paper begins with this stated perspective to explore the impact women’s employment has exerted on income inequalities in Turkey. Two distinct inequality measures, the Gini coefficient and the Theil index, are used based on a literature study to observe in detail the effects of women’s labor force participation on income inequalities. The ARDL Bounds Testing methodology is employed with the time-series data (1988–2015) to accomplish the stated purpose. The estimation results reveal that the labor participation of women has reduced income inequalities in Turkey in the long run.

References

  • Betson, D., & Van Der Gaag, J. (1984). Working married women and the distribution of income. Journal of Human Resources, 19(4), 532-543. google scholar
  • Cancian, M., & Reed, D. (1998). Assessing the effects of wives’ earnings on family income inequality. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(1), 73-79. google scholar
  • Cancian, M., & Reed, D. (1999). The impact of wives’ earnings on income inequality: Issues and estimates. Demography, 36(2), 173-184. https://doi.org/10.2307/2648106 google scholar
  • Elveren, A. Y. (2014). Women’s labour force participation and pay inequality: evidence from panel cointegration. Applied Economics Letters, 21(12), 862-865. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2014.894622 google scholar
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (2009 [2011]). Tamamlanmamış devrim: kadınların yeni rollerine uymak (S. Çağatay, Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. google scholar
  • Gornick, J. (1999). Gender equality in the labor market: Women’s employment and earnings (LIS Working Paper No. 206). Luxembourg: Luxembourg Income Study. google scholar
  • Greenwood, J., Guner, N., Kocharkov, G., & Santos, C. (2014). Marry your like: Assortative mating and income inequality. The American Economic Review, 104(5), 348-353. doi: 10.1257/aer.104.5.348 google scholar
  • Gregory, M. B. (2009). Gender and economic inequality. W. Salverda, B. Nolan & T.M. Smeeding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality (pp. 284-315). Oxford, US: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Karoly, L. A., & Burtless, G. (1995). The effects of rising earnings inequality on the distribution of us income. Demography, 32, 379-406. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061687 google scholar
  • Lam, D. (1997). Demographic variables and income inequality. O. Stark & M.R. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Handbook of population and family economics, (pp.1015-1059). Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier google scholar
  • Lerman, R. I., & Yitzhaki, S. (1985). Income inequality effects by income source: A new approach and applications to the United States. The review of economics and statistics, 67(1), 151-156. https://doi.org/10.2307/1928447 google scholar
  • Meyers, M., Phillips, K. R., & Gornick, J. (1996). Supporting the Employment of Mothers: Policy Variation Across Fourteen Welfare States (LIS Working Paper No. 139). Luxembourg: Luxembourg Income Study. google scholar
  • Milanoviç, B. (2016 [2018]). Küresel eşitsizlik: küreselleşme çağı için yeni bir yaklaşım (M. Uzbay, M. Prili Çev.). Ankara, Türkiye: Efil Yayınevi. google scholar
  • Mincer, J. (1962). Labor force participation of married women: A study of labor supply. Aspects of labor economics (pp. 63-105). Princeton, US: Princeton University Press. google scholar
  • MPD. (2020). Maddison Project Database (MPD) 2020. Retrieved from www.ggdc.net/maddison. google scholar
  • Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2006). What determines migration flows from low-income to high-income countries? An empirical investigation of Fiji-Us migration 1972-2001. Contemporary economic policy, 24(2), 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cep/byj019 google scholar
  • Nieuwenhuis, R., Van der Kolk, H., & Need, A. (2017). Women’s earnings and household inequality in OECD countries, 1973-2013. Acta Sociologica, 60(1), 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699316654528 google scholar
  • OECD Statistics. (2020). Labour Force Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/sdd/labour-stats/. google scholar
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal google scholar
  • of Applied Econometrics (Chichester, England), 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616 google scholar
  • Piketty, T. (2013[2014]). Yirmi Birinci Yüzyılda Kapital (H. Koçak, Çev.). İstanbul, Türkiye: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. google scholar
  • Shorrocks, A. F. (1982). Inequality decomposition by factor components. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 50(1), 193-211. L: Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1912537 google scholar
  • Smith, J. P. (1979). The distribution of family earnings. Journal of Political Economy, 87(5, Part 2), 163-192. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1829913 google scholar
  • Sudo, N. (2017). The effects of women’s labor force participation: an explanation of changes in household income inequality. Social Forces, 95(4), 1427-1450. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox011 google scholar
  • UTIP. (2020). University of Texas Inequality Project 2020. Retrieved from UTIP (utexas.edu). google scholar
  • Yerdelen Tatoğlu, F. (2013). İleri panel veri analizi: stata uygulamalı (2.bs). İstanbul, Türkiye: Beta Yayınevi. google scholar

Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik

Year 2021, Issue: 64, 91 - 104, 29.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2021-903123

Abstract

1980’li yıllardan itibaren birçok toplumda artan gelir eşitsizliği veya gelir ve ücretin dağılımdaki değişimler, çoğunlukla küreselleşme, uluslararası ticaret, teknolojik değişim gibi kavramlar çerçevesinde ele alınmaktadır. 1980'lerden bu yana, eşitsizliklerdeki çarpıcı artışların yanı sıra toplumsal ve ekonomik bir diğer önemli gelişme ise kadının işgücüne katılımındaki önemli artıştır. Artan sayıda kadının ücretli emeğin parçası haline gelmesini yani emek piyasasının kadınlaşmasını, bir dizi nitel değişim de takip etmektedir. Bu değişimlerin en önemlisi, kadınların daha önce bulunmadıkları mesleklere ve sektörlere girmesi, yönetici pozisyonlarında ve işveren pozisyonlarında yer almalarıdır. İstihdam oranındaki artışla birlikte kadının artan kazancı, aile gelirine katkı sağlamıştır. Kadının aile gelirine katkısı ve ücretli emeğin bir parçası haline gelmesi, kuşkusuz birçok toplumda gelir ve ücret dağılımında dönüşümlere neden olmuştur. Bu bakış açısından yola çıkarak, bu makale kadın istihdamının Türkiye için eşitsizlikler üzerindeki etkisini araştırmaktadır. Literatürdeki çalışmalardan yola çıkarak kadınların işgücüne katılımının eşitsizlikler üzerindeki etkisini ayrıntılı olarak gözlemlemek için, Gini ve Theil katsayıları olmak üzere iki farklı eşitsizlik ölçütü kullanılmıştır. Bu amaçla, zaman serisi verileriyle birlikte ARDL Sınır Testi yaklaşımı kullanılmıştır (1988'den 2015'e kadar olan dönem için). Tahmin sonuçları, kadınların işgücüne katılımının uzun vadede Türkiye örneğinde eşitsizlikleri azalttığını göstermektedir.

References

  • Betson, D., & Van Der Gaag, J. (1984). Working married women and the distribution of income. Journal of Human Resources, 19(4), 532-543. google scholar
  • Cancian, M., & Reed, D. (1998). Assessing the effects of wives’ earnings on family income inequality. Review of Economics and Statistics, 80(1), 73-79. google scholar
  • Cancian, M., & Reed, D. (1999). The impact of wives’ earnings on income inequality: Issues and estimates. Demography, 36(2), 173-184. https://doi.org/10.2307/2648106 google scholar
  • Elveren, A. Y. (2014). Women’s labour force participation and pay inequality: evidence from panel cointegration. Applied Economics Letters, 21(12), 862-865. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2014.894622 google scholar
  • Esping-Andersen, G. (2009 [2011]). Tamamlanmamış devrim: kadınların yeni rollerine uymak (S. Çağatay, Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. google scholar
  • Gornick, J. (1999). Gender equality in the labor market: Women’s employment and earnings (LIS Working Paper No. 206). Luxembourg: Luxembourg Income Study. google scholar
  • Greenwood, J., Guner, N., Kocharkov, G., & Santos, C. (2014). Marry your like: Assortative mating and income inequality. The American Economic Review, 104(5), 348-353. doi: 10.1257/aer.104.5.348 google scholar
  • Gregory, M. B. (2009). Gender and economic inequality. W. Salverda, B. Nolan & T.M. Smeeding (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality (pp. 284-315). Oxford, US: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Karoly, L. A., & Burtless, G. (1995). The effects of rising earnings inequality on the distribution of us income. Demography, 32, 379-406. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061687 google scholar
  • Lam, D. (1997). Demographic variables and income inequality. O. Stark & M.R. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Handbook of population and family economics, (pp.1015-1059). Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier google scholar
  • Lerman, R. I., & Yitzhaki, S. (1985). Income inequality effects by income source: A new approach and applications to the United States. The review of economics and statistics, 67(1), 151-156. https://doi.org/10.2307/1928447 google scholar
  • Meyers, M., Phillips, K. R., & Gornick, J. (1996). Supporting the Employment of Mothers: Policy Variation Across Fourteen Welfare States (LIS Working Paper No. 139). Luxembourg: Luxembourg Income Study. google scholar
  • Milanoviç, B. (2016 [2018]). Küresel eşitsizlik: küreselleşme çağı için yeni bir yaklaşım (M. Uzbay, M. Prili Çev.). Ankara, Türkiye: Efil Yayınevi. google scholar
  • Mincer, J. (1962). Labor force participation of married women: A study of labor supply. Aspects of labor economics (pp. 63-105). Princeton, US: Princeton University Press. google scholar
  • MPD. (2020). Maddison Project Database (MPD) 2020. Retrieved from www.ggdc.net/maddison. google scholar
  • Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2006). What determines migration flows from low-income to high-income countries? An empirical investigation of Fiji-Us migration 1972-2001. Contemporary economic policy, 24(2), 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cep/byj019 google scholar
  • Nieuwenhuis, R., Van der Kolk, H., & Need, A. (2017). Women’s earnings and household inequality in OECD countries, 1973-2013. Acta Sociologica, 60(1), 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699316654528 google scholar
  • OECD Statistics. (2020). Labour Force Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/sdd/labour-stats/. google scholar
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal google scholar
  • of Applied Econometrics (Chichester, England), 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616 google scholar
  • Piketty, T. (2013[2014]). Yirmi Birinci Yüzyılda Kapital (H. Koçak, Çev.). İstanbul, Türkiye: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. google scholar
  • Shorrocks, A. F. (1982). Inequality decomposition by factor components. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 50(1), 193-211. L: Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1912537 google scholar
  • Smith, J. P. (1979). The distribution of family earnings. Journal of Political Economy, 87(5, Part 2), 163-192. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1829913 google scholar
  • Sudo, N. (2017). The effects of women’s labor force participation: an explanation of changes in household income inequality. Social Forces, 95(4), 1427-1450. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox011 google scholar
  • UTIP. (2020). University of Texas Inequality Project 2020. Retrieved from UTIP (utexas.edu). google scholar
  • Yerdelen Tatoğlu, F. (2013). İleri panel veri analizi: stata uygulamalı (2.bs). İstanbul, Türkiye: Beta Yayınevi. google scholar
There are 26 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Economics
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Leyla Firuze Arda Özalp 0000-0001-9654-8043

Publication Date December 29, 2021
Submission Date March 25, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Issue: 64

Cite

APA Arda Özalp, L. F. (2021). Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik. Journal of Economy Culture and Society(64), 91-104. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2021-903123
AMA Arda Özalp LF. Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik. Journal of Economy Culture and Society. December 2021;(64):91-104. doi:10.26650/JECS2021-903123
Chicago Arda Özalp, Leyla Firuze. “Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı Ve Eşitsizlik”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, no. 64 (December 2021): 91-104. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2021-903123.
EndNote Arda Özalp LF (December 1, 2021) Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik. Journal of Economy Culture and Society 64 91–104.
IEEE L. F. Arda Özalp, “Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik”, Journal of Economy Culture and Society, no. 64, pp. 91–104, December 2021, doi: 10.26650/JECS2021-903123.
ISNAD Arda Özalp, Leyla Firuze. “Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı Ve Eşitsizlik”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society 64 (December 2021), 91-104. https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2021-903123.
JAMA Arda Özalp LF. Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik. Journal of Economy Culture and Society. 2021;:91–104.
MLA Arda Özalp, Leyla Firuze. “Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı Ve Eşitsizlik”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, no. 64, 2021, pp. 91-104, doi:10.26650/JECS2021-903123.
Vancouver Arda Özalp LF. Türkiye’de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımı ve Eşitsizlik. Journal of Economy Culture and Society. 2021(64):91-104.