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THE EFFECTS OF GENDER INEQUALITY ON ECONOMIC GROWTH IN TÜRKİYE: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS

Year 2026, Volume: 7 Issue: 1 , 62 - 80 , 29.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.53280/jer.1923654
https://izlik.org/JA87KP38DM

Abstract

This research aims to analyze the effects of gender inequality on economic growth within the Turkish economy through a theoretical and empirical framework using annual data covering the 1990–2023 period. The long-term cointegration relationship and short-term dynamics among the variables were examined using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bound testing approach, which allows for the analysis of series integrated at different orders. Empirical findings indicate a statistically significant and robust cointegration relationship among the variables under consideration. Long-term coefficient estimates reveal that gender inequality, particularly in the field of employment, has a negative and significant impact on economic growth; this confirms the critical importance of policies aimed at integrating the female labor force into the production process for macroeconomic performance. While inequalities in health were found to be positive associated with growth, no direct or significant impact of inequalities in education and political dimensions on growth was detected during the period analyzed. Short-term analyses demonstrate that gender-based imbalances can trigger economic fluctuations; however, the system converges back to its long-term equilibrium owing to the functionality of the error correction mechanism. The results obtained prove that inclusive and equality-oriented structural reforms encouraging women's participation in employment play a vital role in enabling Türkiye to achieve a sustainable and stable growth trajectory.

References

  • Aggarwal, K., Rathore, P., & Kashyap, K. (2023). Gender inequity and economic growth: An empirical analysis. Towards Excellence. https://doi.org/10.37867/te150242.
  • Altuzarra, A., Gálvez-Gálvez, C., & González-Flores, A. (2021). Is gender inequality a barrier to economic growth? A panel data analysis of developing countries. Sustainability, 13(1), 367. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010367.
  • Berik, G., Rodgers, Y. V. D. M., & Seguino, S. (2009). Feminist economics of inequality, development, and growth. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700903093524.
  • Bertay, A., Dordevic, L., & Sever, C. (2025). Gender inequality and economic growth: Evidence from industry-level data. Empirical Economics, 68, 2291-2326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-024-02698-6.
  • Braunstein, E., Bouhia, R., & Seguino, S. (2020). Social reproduction, gender equality and economic growth. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 44(1), 129-156. https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/bez032.
  • Cuberes, D., & Teignier, M. (2014). Gender inequality and economic growth: A critical review. Journal of International Development, 26, 260-276. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.2983.
  • Çağındı, Y., & Dolu, A. (2024). Toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik büyümeye etkisi. Turkish Studies - Economics, Finance, Politics, 19(4), 1231-1242.
  • Çolak, Z. (2021). Türkiye’de toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği-ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi üzerine ekonometrik analiz. MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 10(2), 1094–1105. https://doi.org/10.33206/mjss.708166.
  • Damjanovic, T., & Selvaretnam, G. (2019). Economic growth and evolution of gender equality. The Manchester School, 88(1), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/manc.12274.
  • Elson, D. (2009). Gender equality and economic growth in the World Bank World Development Report 2006. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 35-59. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902964303.
  • Ertürkmen, G. (2025). Ekonomik büyüme, kadınların eğitimi ve istihdamı arasındaki ilişkinin fertiliteye yansıması. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Aile Yılı Özel Sayısı, 456-480. https://doi.org/10.14520/adyusbd.1741236.
  • Forsythe, N., Korzeniewicz, R. P., & Durrant, V. (2000). Gender inequalities and economic growth: A longitudinal evaluation. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48, 573-617. https://doi.org/10.1086/452611.
  • Ghosh, S. (2021). How trade diversification and economic growth affect gender inequality in female labour market participation? The case of India. Journal of Economics and Development, 24(2), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1108/JED-12-2020-0194.
  • Girón, A., & Kazemikhasragh, A. (2021). Gender equality and economic growth in Asia and Africa: Empirical analysis of developing and least developed countries. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 13, 1433-1443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00782-1.
  • Gujarati, D. N., & Porter, D. C. (2009). Basic econometrics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Kabeer, N. (2016). Gender equality, economic growth, and women’s agency: The “endless variety” and “monotonous similarity” of patriarchal constraints. Feminist Economics, 22, 295-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1090009.
  • Kabeer, N. (2021). Gender equality, inclusive growth, and labour markets. İçinde Women’s Economic Empowerment (ss. 13-48). Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141938-3.
  • Khasanah, U., & Sasana, H. (2022). Significance of gender equality in economic growth. Research Horizon, 2(2), 374-380. https://doi.org/10.54518/rh.2.2.2022.374-380.
  • Kılıç, J. (2025). The effect of global gender inequality and female employment on the economic growth: Panel ARDL. International Journal of Research in Entrepreneurship & Business Studies, 6(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.47259/ijrebs.2025.611.
  • Kim, J., Lee, J., & Shin, K. (2016). A model of gender inequality and economic growth. Asian Development Bank Working Paper Series No. 475. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2737844.
  • Klasen, S. (2018). The impact of gender inequality on economic performance in developing countries. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 10(1), 279-298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-023429.
  • Mitra, A., Bang, J. T., & Biswas, A. (2015). Gender equality and economic growth: Is it equality of opportunity or equality of outcomes? Feminist Economics, 21(1), 110-135. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.930163.
  • Onaran, Ö., Oyvat, C., & Fotopoulou, E. (2022). Gendering macroeconomic analysis and development policy: A theoretical model. Feminist Economics, 28(2), 23-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2022.2033294.
  • Özdemir, E. A., & Altay, A. (2021). Toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği ve ekonomik kalkınma ilişkisi: OECD ülkeleri analizi. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 36(3), 601-665.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616.
  • Seguino, S. (2000). Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis. World Development, 28, 1211-1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8.
  • Silva, M., & Klasen, S. (2021). Gender inequality as a barrier to economic growth: A review of the theoretical literature. Review of Economics of the Household, 19, 581-614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09535-6.
  • Şahin, B. Y., & Alp, C. (2020). Kadınların işgücüne katılımının ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi: Türkiye örneği. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 17(45), 186-202.
  • Şahin, S., & Bayhan, A. C. (2020). Türkiye’de toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik boyutu. Lectio Socialis, 4(1), 59-74. https://izlik.org/JA48HN96RP.

TÜRKİYE’DE CİNSİYET EŞİTSİZLİĞİNİN EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİLERİ: EKONOMETRİK BİR İNCELEME

Year 2026, Volume: 7 Issue: 1 , 62 - 80 , 29.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.53280/jer.1923654
https://izlik.org/JA87KP38DM

Abstract

Bu çalışma, 1990–2023 dönemini kapsayan yıllık veriler aracılığıyla Türkiye ekonomisinde toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkilerini teorik ve ampirik bir çerçevede analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Değişkenler arasındaki uzun dönemli eşbütünleşme ilişkisi ve kısa dönem dinamikleri, serilerin farklı derecelerde durağan olmasına imkân tanıyan ARDL (Otoregresif Dağıtılmış Gecikme) sınır testi yöntemi ile incelenmiştir. Ampirik bulgular, ele alınan değişkenler arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ve güçlü bir eşbütünleşme ilişkisinin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Uzun dönem katsayı tahminleri, özellikle istihdam alanındaki cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik büyüme üzerinde negatif ve anlamlı bir etkiye sahip olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır; bu durum, kadın iş gücünün üretim sürecine entegrasyonunu hedefleyen politikaların makroekonomik performans açısından taşıdığı kritik önemi doğrulamaktadır. Sağlık alanındaki eşitsizliklerin büyüme ile pozitif ilişkili olduğu saptanırken, eğitim ve siyaset boyutlarındaki eşitsizliklerin incelenen dönem zarfında büyüme üzerinde doğrudan ve belirgin bir etkisi tespit edilememiştir. Kısa dönem analizleri ise toplumsal cinsiyet temelli dengesizliklerin ekonomik dalgalanmaları tetikleyebildiğini, ancak hata düzeltme mekanizmasının işlerliği sayesinde sistemin yeniden uzun dönem dengesine yakınsadığını göstermektedir. Elde edilen sonuçlar, Türkiye’nin sürdürülebilir ve istikrarlı bir büyüme patikasına ulaşabilmesi için kadınların istihdama katılımını teşvik eden kapsayıcı ve eşitlik odaklı yapısal reformların hayati bir rol oynadığını kanıtlamaktadır.

References

  • Aggarwal, K., Rathore, P., & Kashyap, K. (2023). Gender inequity and economic growth: An empirical analysis. Towards Excellence. https://doi.org/10.37867/te150242.
  • Altuzarra, A., Gálvez-Gálvez, C., & González-Flores, A. (2021). Is gender inequality a barrier to economic growth? A panel data analysis of developing countries. Sustainability, 13(1), 367. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010367.
  • Berik, G., Rodgers, Y. V. D. M., & Seguino, S. (2009). Feminist economics of inequality, development, and growth. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700903093524.
  • Bertay, A., Dordevic, L., & Sever, C. (2025). Gender inequality and economic growth: Evidence from industry-level data. Empirical Economics, 68, 2291-2326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-024-02698-6.
  • Braunstein, E., Bouhia, R., & Seguino, S. (2020). Social reproduction, gender equality and economic growth. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 44(1), 129-156. https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/bez032.
  • Cuberes, D., & Teignier, M. (2014). Gender inequality and economic growth: A critical review. Journal of International Development, 26, 260-276. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.2983.
  • Çağındı, Y., & Dolu, A. (2024). Toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik büyümeye etkisi. Turkish Studies - Economics, Finance, Politics, 19(4), 1231-1242.
  • Çolak, Z. (2021). Türkiye’de toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği-ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi üzerine ekonometrik analiz. MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 10(2), 1094–1105. https://doi.org/10.33206/mjss.708166.
  • Damjanovic, T., & Selvaretnam, G. (2019). Economic growth and evolution of gender equality. The Manchester School, 88(1), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/manc.12274.
  • Elson, D. (2009). Gender equality and economic growth in the World Bank World Development Report 2006. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 35-59. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902964303.
  • Ertürkmen, G. (2025). Ekonomik büyüme, kadınların eğitimi ve istihdamı arasındaki ilişkinin fertiliteye yansıması. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Aile Yılı Özel Sayısı, 456-480. https://doi.org/10.14520/adyusbd.1741236.
  • Forsythe, N., Korzeniewicz, R. P., & Durrant, V. (2000). Gender inequalities and economic growth: A longitudinal evaluation. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 48, 573-617. https://doi.org/10.1086/452611.
  • Ghosh, S. (2021). How trade diversification and economic growth affect gender inequality in female labour market participation? The case of India. Journal of Economics and Development, 24(2), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1108/JED-12-2020-0194.
  • Girón, A., & Kazemikhasragh, A. (2021). Gender equality and economic growth in Asia and Africa: Empirical analysis of developing and least developed countries. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 13, 1433-1443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00782-1.
  • Gujarati, D. N., & Porter, D. C. (2009). Basic econometrics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Kabeer, N. (2016). Gender equality, economic growth, and women’s agency: The “endless variety” and “monotonous similarity” of patriarchal constraints. Feminist Economics, 22, 295-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1090009.
  • Kabeer, N. (2021). Gender equality, inclusive growth, and labour markets. İçinde Women’s Economic Empowerment (ss. 13-48). Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003141938-3.
  • Khasanah, U., & Sasana, H. (2022). Significance of gender equality in economic growth. Research Horizon, 2(2), 374-380. https://doi.org/10.54518/rh.2.2.2022.374-380.
  • Kılıç, J. (2025). The effect of global gender inequality and female employment on the economic growth: Panel ARDL. International Journal of Research in Entrepreneurship & Business Studies, 6(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.47259/ijrebs.2025.611.
  • Kim, J., Lee, J., & Shin, K. (2016). A model of gender inequality and economic growth. Asian Development Bank Working Paper Series No. 475. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2737844.
  • Klasen, S. (2018). The impact of gender inequality on economic performance in developing countries. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 10(1), 279-298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-023429.
  • Mitra, A., Bang, J. T., & Biswas, A. (2015). Gender equality and economic growth: Is it equality of opportunity or equality of outcomes? Feminist Economics, 21(1), 110-135. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.930163.
  • Onaran, Ö., Oyvat, C., & Fotopoulou, E. (2022). Gendering macroeconomic analysis and development policy: A theoretical model. Feminist Economics, 28(2), 23-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2022.2033294.
  • Özdemir, E. A., & Altay, A. (2021). Toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği ve ekonomik kalkınma ilişkisi: OECD ülkeleri analizi. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 36(3), 601-665.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616.
  • Seguino, S. (2000). Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis. World Development, 28, 1211-1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8.
  • Silva, M., & Klasen, S. (2021). Gender inequality as a barrier to economic growth: A review of the theoretical literature. Review of Economics of the Household, 19, 581-614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09535-6.
  • Şahin, B. Y., & Alp, C. (2020). Kadınların işgücüne katılımının ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi: Türkiye örneği. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 17(45), 186-202.
  • Şahin, S., & Bayhan, A. C. (2020). Türkiye’de toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin ekonomik boyutu. Lectio Socialis, 4(1), 59-74. https://izlik.org/JA48HN96RP.
There are 29 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Policy and Administration (Other)
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Nigar Alev 0000-0002-0154-6211

Gülferah Ertürkmen 0000-0003-2239-0241

Submission Date April 5, 2026
Acceptance Date April 26, 2026
Publication Date April 29, 2026
DOI https://doi.org/10.53280/jer.1923654
IZ https://izlik.org/JA87KP38DM
Published in Issue Year 2026 Volume: 7 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Alev, N., & Ertürkmen, G. (2026). TÜRKİYE’DE CİNSİYET EŞİTSİZLİĞİNİN EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİLERİ: EKONOMETRİK BİR İNCELEME. Journal of Economics and Research, 7(1), 62-80. https://doi.org/10.53280/jer.1923654