Detection and Characterization of Airborne Microplastics in Industrial and Landfill Regions of Ankara (Türkiye) Using Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr.

Abstract

Despite being a recently recognized environmental concern, the terrestrial dispersion of airborne microplastics (MPs) pollution remains uncertain. This study investigates airborne microplastic contamination in industrial zones and a landfill area of Ankara (Türkiye) using the epiphytic lichen Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. as a passive bioindicator. Lichen samples were collected from three organized industrial zones, a municipal landfill. Microplastics were extracted using a modified wet peroxide oxidation method and characterized by stereomicroscopy, Rose Bengal staining, and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. A total of 566 microplastic particles were identified, predominantly as microfibers, indicating strong contributions from textile-related and industrial sources. Microplastic abundance and density varied markedly among sites, with the highest levels observed at Sincan Organized Industrial Zone, followed by Ostim Organized Industrial Zone, the landfill site, and Polatlı Organized Industrial Zone. FT-IR analysis revealed a diverse polymer assemblage, including PE, PP, PET, PS, PVC, PA, PAN, PC, PMMA, PU, and PTFE. Although microplastics were also detected at reference lichen (Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.), their lower abundance and reduced polymer diversity suggest background deposition and possible long-range atmospheric transport. These findings demonstrate the influence of industrial activity and waste-related sources on airborne microplastic contamination and confirm X. parietina as a suitable bioindicator for atmospheric microplastic biomonitoring.

Keywords

• Microplastic
• Atmospheric pollution
• Lichen
• Ankara
• Xanthoria parietina

Ankara’daki Endüstriyel ve Düzenli Depolama Alanlarında Havada Taşınan Mikroplastiklerin Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. ile Belirlenmesi

Abstract

Havada taşınan mikroplastiklerin (MP’ler) karasal ortamlara yayılımı, çevresel bir sorun olarak yakın zamanda tanınmasına rağmen hâlen belirsizliğini korumaktadır. Bu çalışmada, Ankara’daki (Türkiye) endüstriyel bölgeler ile bir düzenli depolama alanında atmosferik mikroplastik kirliliği, pasif biyoindikatör olarak epifitik liken Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. kullanılarak araştırılmıştır. Liken örnekleri üç organize sanayi bölgesi ile bir belediye katı atık düzenli depolama sahasından toplanmıştır. Mikroplastikler, modifiye edilmiş ıslak peroksit oksidasyon yöntemi ile ekstrakte edilmiş ve stereomikroskop, Rose Bengal boyaması ve Fourier Dönüşümlü Kızılötesi (FT-IR) spektroskopisi kullanılarak karakterize edilmiştir. Toplamda 566 mikroplastik parçacık tespit edilmiş olup, bunların büyük çoğunluğunu mikrofiberler oluşturmuştur. Bu durum, tekstil kaynaklı faaliyetler ile endüstriyel girdilerin önemli katkı sağladığını göstermektedir. Mikroplastik bolluğu ve yoğunluğu örnekleme alanları arasında belirgin farklılıklar sergilemiş; en yüksek değerler Sincan Organize Sanayi Bölgesi’nde, ardından Ostim Organize Sanayi Bölgesi, düzenli depolama sahası ve Polatlı Organize Sanayi Bölgesi’nde belirlenmiştir. FT-IR analizleri, PE, PP, PET, PS, PVC, PA, PAN, PC, PMMA, PU ve PTFE gibi farklı polimer türlerinin varlığını ortaya koymuştur. Referans liken örneklerinde (Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.) de mikroplastiklere rastlanmakla birlikte, daha düşük bolluk ve sınırlı polimer çeşitliliği, arka plan birikimini ve olası uzun menzilli atmosferik taşınımı işaret etmektedir. Elde edilen bulgular, endüstriyel faaliyetler ve atık kaynaklı girdilerin atmosferik mikroplastik kirliliği üzerindeki etkisini ortaya koymakta ve X. parietina’nın atmosferik mikroplastik biyoizleme için uygun bir biyoindikatör olduğunu doğrulamaktadır.

Keywords

• Mikroplastik
• Atmosferik kirlilik
• Liken
• Ankara
• Xanthoria parietina

References

1. Abbasi, S., Keshavarzi, B., Moore, F., Turner, A., Kelly, F. J., Dominguez, A. O.,& Jaafarzadeh, N. (2018). Distribution and potential health impacts of microplastics and microrubbers in air and street dusts from Asaluyeh County, Iran. Environmental Pollution, 244, 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.039.
2. Abdi, H., & Williams, L. J. (2010). Principal component analysis. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics, 2, 433–459.
3. Allen, S., Allen, D., Phoenix, V. R., Roux, G. L., Jiménez, P. D., Simonneau, A., Binet, S.,& Galop, D. (2019). Atmospheric transport and deposition of microplastics in a remote mountain catchment. Nature Geoscience, 12(5), 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0335-5
4. Alurralde, G., Isla, E., Fuentes, V., Olariaga, A., Maggioni, T., et al. (2022). Anthropogenic microfibres flux in an Antarctic coastal ecosystem: The tip of an iceberg?. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 175, 113388.
5. Anderson, P. J., Warrack, S., Langen, V., Challis, J. K., Hanson, M. L.,& Rennie, M. D. (2017). Microplastic contamination in Lake Winnipeg, Canada. Environmental Pollution, 225, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.02.072
6. Andoh, C. N., Attiogbe, F., Ackerson, N. O. B., Antwi, M., & Adu-Boahen, K. (2023). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy: An analytical technique for microplastic identification and quantification. Infrared Physics & Technology, 136, 105070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2023.105070
7. Andrady, A.L., 2011. Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62 (1879–3363 (Electronic)), 1596–1605.
8. Ankara Chamber of Industry, (2025), https://www.aosb.org.tr/ Accessed: 15 November 2025

9. Ankara Metropolitan Municipality Waste Management and Garbage Collection Projects. (2025). https://www.ankara.bel.tr Accessed: 15 November 2025
10. Ankara Provincial Directorate of Environment, Urbanisation And Climate Change. (2023) Ankara Province Environmental Status Report for 2022.
11. Bergmann, M., Mützel, S., Primpke, S., Tekman, M. B., Trachsel, J., & Gerdts, G. (2019). White and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic. Science Advances, 5(8). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax1157
12. Brahney, J., Mahowald, N., Prank, M., Cornwell, G., Klimont, Z., et al. (2021). Constraining the atmospheric limb of the plastic cycle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(16), e2020719118.
13. Cai, L., Wang, J., Peng, J., Tan, Z., Zhan, Z., Tan, X., Chen, Q., 2017. Characteristic of microplastics in the atmospheric fallout from Dongguan city, China: preliminary research and first evidence. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 24, 24928–24935. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11356-017-0116-x.
14. Capozzi, F., Sorrentino, M. C., Granata, A., Vergara, A., Alberico, M., Rossi, M., Spagnuolo, V., & Giordano, S. (2023). Optimizing moss and lichen transplants as biomonitors of airborne anthropogenic microfibers. Biology, 12(10), 1278. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12101278
15. Cheval, N., Gindy, N., Flowkes, C. & Fahmi, A. (2012). Polyamide 66 microspheres metallised with in situ synthesised gold nanoparticles for a catalytic application. Nanoscale Research Letters, 7, 1-9.
16. Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011). Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(12), 2588–2597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025
17. Çobanoğlu, G., & Özen, E. (2024). Detection of Atmospheric Microplastics Accumulated in Xanthoria parietina: A Lichen Biomonitoring Study on the Asian Side of Istanbul. International Journal of Environmental Research, 18(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-024-00596-4
18. Dar, M. A., Palsania, P., Satya, S., Dashora, M., Bhat, O. A., Parveen, S., Patidar, S. K., & Kaushik, G. (2025). Microplastic pollution: A global perspective in surface waters, microbial degradation, and corresponding mechanism. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 210, 117344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.117344
19. Dris, R., Gasperi, J., Saad, M., Mirande, C., & Tassin, B. (2016). Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 104(1–2), 290–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006
20. Enyoh, C.E., Verla, A.W., Verla, E.N., Ibe, F.C., Amaobi, C.E., 2019. Airborne microplastics: a review study on method for analysis, occurrence, movement and risks. Environ. Monit. Assess. 191, 668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7842- 0.
21. Erdem, S. (2008). Çatıda Kullanılan Polimer Kökenli Levhaların Karşılaştırmalı Analizi, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
22. Facchinelli, A., Sacchi, E., & Mallen, L. (2001). Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources. Environmental Pollution, 114, 313–324.
23. Fendall, L. S., & Sewell, M. A. (2009). Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(8), 1225–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
24. Fox, S., Stefánsson, H., Peternell, M., Zlotskiy, E., Ásbjörnsson, E. J., Sturkell, E., Wanner, P., & Konrad-Schmolke, M. (2024). Physical characteristics of microplastic particles and potential for global atmospheric transport: A meta-analysis. Environmental Pollution, 342, 122938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122938
25. GESAMP. (2015). Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: A global assessment. Kershaw P. J. (Ed.) (IMO/FAO/UNESCO‐IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environment Protection). Reports and Studies GESAMP, No. 90, 96 p.
26. Gollo, M. S., Villagra, E. L., & Gomez, J. J. (2024). Evaluación de la contaminación por microplásticos en el liquen Candelaria concolor (Dicks) Arnold, 1879: un estudio de caso sobre el Efecto de la Ruralidad. Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat., n.s.26(2): 147-154, 2024ISSN 1514-5158 (impresa)
27. Gollo, M. S., Villagra, E. L., & Gomez, J. J. (2025). Atmospheric microplastic accumulation in Ramalina celastri (Sprengel) Krog & Swinscow Thalli: a transplant study across different levels of urbanization. Folia Oecologica, 52(1), 62–69. https://doi.org/10.2478/foecol-2025-0007
28. Gopanna, A., Mandapati, R. N., Thomas, S. P., Rajan, K. & Chavali, M. (2019). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) of polypropylene (PP)/cyclic olefin copolymer (COC) blends for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Polymer Bulletin, 76(8), 4259-4274.
29. Grifoni, L., Jafarova, M., La Colla, N. S., Aherne, J., Raulli, A., & Loppi, S. (2025). Comparison of lichen and moss transplants for monitoring the deposition of airborne microfibers. Sustainability, 17(2), 537. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17020537
30. Herrera, A., Garrido-Amador, P., Martínez, I., Samper, M. D., López-Martínez, J., Gómez, M., & Packard, T. T. (2018). Novel methodology to isolate microplastics from vegetal-rich samples. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 129(1), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.02.015
31. https://mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=A&m=ANKARA Accessed: 15 November 2025
32. https://www.ostim.org.tr/about-ostim. Accessed: 15 November 2025
33. https://www.posb.org.tr/. Accessed: 15 November 2025
34. Helm, P. A. (2017). Improving microplastics source apportionment: a role for microplastic morphology and taxonomy?. Analytical Methods, 9(9), 1328-1331.
35. Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R. C. & Thiel, M. (2012). Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(6), 3060-3075.
36. Jafarova, M., Contardo, T., Aherne, J., & Loppi, S. (2022). Lichen Biomonitoring of Airborne Microplastics in Milan (N Italy). Biology, 11(12), 1815. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11121815
37. Jahedi, F., Fard, N. J. H., & Turner, A. (2025). A Systematic Review of Biomonitoring Microplastics in Environmental Matrices: Emphasis on Airborne Particles, Dry Deposits, and Comparative Analysis with Traditional Methods. Environmental Advances, 100609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2025.100609
38. Jiang, C., Yin, L., Li, Z., Wen, X., Luo, X., Hu, S., Yang, H., Long, Y., Deng, B., Huang, L., Liu, Y., 2019. Microplastic pollution in the rivers of the tibet plateau. Environ. Pollut. 249, 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.022.
39. Jolliffe, I. T. (2002). Principal Component Analysis. Springer Series in Statistics, Springer, New York.
40. Kannankai, M. P., & Devipriya, S. P. (2023). Atmospheric microplastic deposition in a coastal city of India: The influence of a landfill source on monsoon winds. The Science of the Total Environment, 908, 168235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168235
41. Khodabakhshloo, N., Abbasi, S., Oleszczuk, P., & Turner, A. (2024). Biomonitoring of airborne microplastics and microrubbers in Shiraz, Iran, using lichens and moss. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 46(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-01977-6
42. Kilinç, Ö., & Toplan, N. (2023). Amorf Polimerler. ALKÜ Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. https://doi.org/10.46740/alku.1299835
43. Kocakaya, Z., Yılmaz, E., Duman, F., Kocakaya, M., & Pekdemir, S. (2024). Biomonitoring of Yozgat Çamlık National Park’s Anthropogenic microfiber Pollution: A Comprehensive Analysis of Lichen-Supported Air Quality Assessment and Microplastic Composition Insights. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4163112/v1
44. Käppler, A., Windrich, F., Löder, M. G. J., Malanin, M., Fischer, D., Labrenz, M., Eichhorn, K., & Voit, B. (2015). Identification of microplastics by FTIR and Raman microscopy: a novel silicon filter substrate opens the important spectral range below 1300 cm−1 for FTIR transmission measurements. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 407(22), 6791–6801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-015-8850-8
45. Lackner, M., & Branka, M. (2024). Çiftlik Hayvanlarında Mikroplastikler—Bir İnceleme. Mikroplastikler , 3 (4), 559-588. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics3040035.
46. Legendre, P., & Legendre, L. (2012). Numerical Ecology. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
47. Löder, M. G. J., & Gerdts, G. (2015). Methodology used for the Detection and Identification of Microplastics—A critical appraisal. In Springer eBooks (pp. 201–227). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_8
48. Loppi, S., Roblin, B., Paoli, L., & Aherne, J. (2021). Accumulation of airborne microplastics in lichens from a landfill dumping site (Italy). Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84251-4
49. Masura, J., Baker, J., Foster, G., & Arthur, C. (2015). Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOSOR& R-48.
50. Munyaneza, J., Jia, Q., Qaraah, F.A., Hossain, M.F., Wu, C., Zhen, H., Xiu, G., 2022. A review of atmospheric microplastics pollution: in-depth sighting of sources, analytical methods, physiognomies, transport and risks. Sci. Total Environ. 822, 153339 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153339.
51. Müller, R., Kleeberg, I., & Deckwer, W. (2001). Biodegradation of polyesters containing aromatic constituents. Journal of Biotechnology, 86(2), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1656(00)00407-7
52. Müller, Y. K., Wernicke, T., Pittroff, M., Witzig, C. S., Storck, F. R., Klinger, J., & Zumbülte, N. (2019). Microplastic analysis—are we measuring the same? Results on the first global comparative study for microplastic analysis in a water sample. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 412(3), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-019-02311-1
53. Nakajima, R., Sawada, H., Hayashi, S., Nara, A., & Hattori, M. (2025). Development of a novel semi-automated analytical system of microplastics using reflectance-FTIR spectrometry: Designed for the analysis of large microplastics. Environmental Science Advances. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4va00400k
54. Öncü, C., & Aydemir, M. E. (2024). Mikroplastikler ve Halk Sağlığı. Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12574485
55. Pandey, M., Joshi, G. M., Mukherjee, A. & Thomas, P. (2016). Electrical properties and thermal degradation of poly (vinyl chloride)/polyvinylidene fluoride/ZnO polymer nanocomposites. Polymer International, 65(9), 1098-1106.
56. Peiris, B.H.P.H., Jayadal, R. G. U., & Wijesekara, S. S. R. M. D. H. R. (2023). An Assessment of distribution of Airborne Microplastic using Epiphytic Crustose Lichens in Surrounding Areas of an Open Dumpsite of a Plastic Crusher Plant at Kanadola, Sri Lanka. Third International Conference of the Centre for Environmental Sustainability (ICCES-2023.
57. Pereira, A. P. D. S., Silva, M. H. P. D., Lima, É. P., Paula, A. D. S. & Tommasini, F. J. (2017). Processing and characterization of PET composites reinforced with geopolymer concrete waste. Materials Research, 20(2), 411-420.
58. Prata, J. C., da Costa, J. P., Lopes, I., Duarte, A. C. & Rocha-Santos, T. (2020). Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects. Science of the Total Environment, 702, 134455.
59. Pratiwi, O. A., Achmadi, U. F., & Kurniawan, R. (2024). Microplastic pollution in landfill soil: Emerging threats the environmental and public health. Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology, 39(1), e2024009. https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2024009
60. Primpke, S., Wirth, M., Lorenz, C., & Gerdts, G. (2018). Reference database design for the automated analysis of microplastic samples based on Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 410(21), 5131–5141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-018-1156-x
61. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Industry and Technology Organised Industrial Zones Information Portal, (2025) https://www.sanayi.gov.tr.
62. Revel, M., Châtel, A. & Mouneyrac, C. (2018). Micro (nano) plastics: A threat to human health?. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 1, 17-23.
63. Roblin, B., & Aherne, J. (2020). Moss as a biomonitor for the atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic microfibres. The Science of the Total Environment, 715, 136973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136973
64. Shukla V, Asati A, Patel DK, Semwal M, Upreti DK (2019) Lichens as sinks of airborne organic pollutants: A case study in the natural ecosystem of Himalayas. In: Arora NK, Kumar N (eds) Phyto and rhizo remediation, microorganisms for sustainability 9 (chapter 7). Springer, Singapore.
65. Taurozzi, D., Gallitelli, L., Cesarini, G., Romano, S., Orsini, M., & Scalici, M. (2024). Passive biomonitoring of airborne microplastics using lichens: A comparison between urban, natural and protected environments. Environment International, 187, 108707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108707
66. Tığlı, N. E., & Cangür, Ş. (2019). Ankara’da Farklı Hava Kalitesi İzleme İstasyonlarından Elde Edilen Verilerin Kantil Regresyon Analizi İle İncelenmesi. Nicel Bilimler Dergisi, 1(2), 62-86.
67. TUIK, (2024). Turkish Statistical Institute, Address Based Population Registration System Results, https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Adrese-Dayali-Nufus-Kayit-Sistemi-Sonuclari-2024-53783
68. Yildiz, A., Aksoy, A., Tug, G. N., Islek, C., & Demirezen, D. (2008). Biomonitoring of heavy metals by Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf in Ankara (Turkey). Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 60(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-008-9109-y
69. Yu, X., Peng, J., Wang, J., Wang, K., & Bao, S. (2016). Occurrence of microplastics in the beach sand of the Chinese inner sea: the Bohai Sea. Environmental Pollution, 214, 722–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.080
70. Yu, J., Wang, P., Ni, F., Cizdziel, J., Wu, D., Zhao, Q., & Zhou, Y. (2019). Characterization of microplastics in environment by thermal gravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 145, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.037
71. Zainuddin, Z., &Syuhada, N. (2020). Study of analysis method on microplastic identification in bottled drinking water. Macromolecular Symposia, 391(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/masy.201900195
72. Zhang Y, Kanga S, Allen S, Allen D, Gao T, Sillanpaae M (2020) Atmospheric microplastics: a review on current status and perspectives. Earth Sci Rev 203:103118. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. earsc irev. 2020. 103118.