Exploring the Intersections among Masculinity, Emotionality, Willingness to Communicate, and Communication Apprehension: A Qualitative Inquiry

Year 2026, Volume: 10 Issue: 1, 15 - 33, 31.01.2026

Muhammed Kök , Dinçay Köksal

https://doi.org/10.51726/jlr.1799526

Abstract

Conformity to masculine gender roles (hereafter CTMGR) is characterized by toughness, hardness, emotional restrictiveness, competitiveness, and dominance in general. Although it has been widely studied in other disciplines, little is known about its role in second/foreign language (L2) affective variables. Addressing this gap, this exploratory case study investigates how male Turkish undergraduate and graduate English-as-a-Foreign Language (EFL) learners perceive, experience, and interpret the intersection between CTMGR and L2 affective constructs (i.e., emotionality, willingness to communicate, and communication apprehension). Data were collected through one-on-one semi-structured interviews with male EFL learners majoring in English Language Teaching. Participants were purposefully selected for their potential to provide insights into the intersection between masculinity and L2 language. Thematic analysis using MAXQDA revealed that CTMGR was commonly associated with suppressing emotional expression and reluctance in communicative engagement. This suppression was perceived to limit male EFL learners’ willingness to communicate and escalate their L2 communication apprehension. Cultural and societal expectations in Türkiye were also found to play a significant role in shaping these perceived dynamics. This study is the first of its type in the EFL context that qualitatively reveals the intersections between masculinity and L2 affective constructs. The findings offer pedagogical insights for developing more inclusive, gender-aware, and culturally responsive L2 teaching practices.

Keywords

Conformity to traditional masculine roles , emotional intelligence , L2 Willingness to communicate , L2 Communication apprehension

Ethical Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. Ethical committee approval for the study was obtained from Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University (Reference Number: E-84026528-050.01.04-2300063069). All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and gave their voluntary consent at the beginning of the study. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured throughout the research by using pseudonyms.

Erkeklik, Duygusallık, İletişim Kurma İsteği ve İletişim Kaygısı Arasındaki Kesişimleri Keşfetmek: Nitel Bir Araştırma

Abstract

Geleneksel erkeklik rollerine uyum, genel olarak sertlik, dayanıklılık, duygusal kısıtlılık, rekabetçilik ve baskınlık ile karakterize edilir. Diğer disiplinlerde yaygın olarak incelenmiş olmasına rağmen, yabancı dil duyuşsal değişkenleri üzerindeki rolü hakkında çok az bilgi bulunmaktadır. Bu boşluğu ele almayı amaçlayan bu keşifsel durum çalışması, yabancı dil olarak İngilizce öğrenen Türk erkek lisans ve lisansüstü öğrencilerinin, geleneksel erkeklik rollerine uyum ile yabancı dil duyuşsal yapıları (yani duygusallık, iletişim kurma isteği ve iletişim kaygısı) arasındaki kesişimi nasıl algıladığını, deneyimlediğini ve yorumladığını incelemektedir.
Veriler, İngilizce Öğretmenliği bölümünde eğitimine devam eden erkek öğrencilerden bire bir yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Katılımcılar, erkeklik ve yabancı dil arasındaki kesişim hakkında görüş sağlayabilecek potansiyelleri açısından dikkate alınarak amaçlı olarak seçilmiştir. MAXQDA ile gerçekleştirilen tematik analiz, geleneksel erkeklik rollerine uyumun duygusal ifadeyi bastırma ve iletişimde isteksizlik ile sıkça ilişkili olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Bu bastırma, erkek öğrencilerinin yabancı dilde iletişim kurma isteğini sınırlayabileceğini ve iletişim kaygılarını arttırabilecek bir potansiyel olarak algılanmıştır. Ayrıca, Türkiye’deki kültürel ve toplumsal beklentilerin, bu algılanan dinamiklerin şekillenmesinde önemli bir rol oynadığı görülmüştür.
Bu çalışma, İngilizcenin yabancı dil olarak öğretildiği bağlamda erkeklik ve yabancı dil duyuşsal yapıları arasındaki kesişimleri nitel olarak ortaya koyan ilk çalışmadır. Bulgular, daha kapsayıcı, cinsiyet farkındalığına sahip ve kültürel olarak duyarlı yabancı dil öğretim uygulamaları geliştirmeye yönelik pedagojik tavsiyeler sunmaktadır.

Keywords

Erkeklik , Duygusallık , İletişim Kurma İsteği , İletişim Kaygısı

References

• Akkuş, Ş. (2021). Freshman ELT students’ oral communication strategies, foreign language speaking anxiety and perceived communication apprehension in oral communication skills course, (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Eskişehir, Anadolu University.
• Alavinia, P. (2012). A probe into the would-be effect (s) of schooling on the enhancement of emotional intelligence. American Journal of Scientific Research, 66, 55-81.
• Appleby, R. (2014). Men and masculinities in global English language teaching. Springer.
• Asmalı M. (2020). General picture of English language teaching programs and students in Turkey. Journal of Higher Education and Science, 10(2), 264-275. https://doi.org/10.5961/jhes.2020.388
• Aydın, S. (2008). An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL learners. Asian EFL Journal 30 (1), 421–444.
• Brannon, R., & Juni, S. (1984). A scale for measuring attitudes about masculinity. Psychological Documents, 14(1). (Document No. 2612), NYU Scholars
• Chaffee, K. E., N. M. Lou, K. A. Noels, & J. W. Katz. (2020a). Why don’t “real men” learn languages? Masculinity threat and gender ideology suppress men’s language learning motivation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(2), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430219835025.
• Chaffee, K. E., Lou, N. M., and Noels, K. A. (2020b). Does stereotype threat affect men in language domains?. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1302. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01302
• Castillo-Montoya, M. (2016). Preparing for interview research: The interview 237 protocol refinement framework. The Qualitative Report, 21(5), 811-831. Retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss5/2/
• Carrión-Durán, M. J., & Carrión-Espinosa, Á. (2023).“La aprehensión comunicativa en las aulas de inglés como lengua extranjera: Una revisión bibliográfica”. MQRInvestigar, 7(1), 2735-2757. https://doi.org/10.56048/MQR20225.7.1.2023.2735-2757
• Cohn, A., & Zeichner, A. (2006). Effects of masculine identity and gender role stress on aggression in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7(4), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.7.4.179
• Cong, W., & Li, P. (2022). The relationship between EFL Learners' communication apprehension, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology,13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.847383
• Creswell, J. W. (2021). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (6th ed.; S. B. Demir & M. Bütün, Eds.). Ankara:Siyasal.
• Dörnyei, Z. (1990). Conceptualizing motivation in foreign language learning. Language Learning, 40, 45–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00954.x
• Dörnyei, Z. (2014). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Routledge.
• Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
• Feder, J., Levant, R. F., & Dean, J. (2010). Boys and violence: A gender-informed analysis. Psychology of Violence, 1(S), 3–12. https://doi.org/10. 1037/ 2152- 0828.1. S.3
• Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. USA: Sage.
• Gürsoy, İ. (2021). The role of the enacted curriculum in the construction of learning identity and reproduction of inequalities. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis), Anadolu University, Eskişehir.
• Heath, P. J., Brenner, R. E., Vogel, D. L., Lannin, D. G., & Strass, H. A. (2017). Masculinity and barriers to seeking counseling: The buffering role of self-compassion. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(1), 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000185
• Hogg, M. A. (2016). Social identity theory. In S. McKeown, R. Haji, & N. Ferguson (Eds.), Understanding peace and conflict through social identity theory: Contemporary global perspectives (pp. 3–17). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_1
• Hymes, D. (1992). The concept of communicative competence revisited. Thirty Years of Linguistic Evolution, 1(2), 31-57
• Kalkan, M., & Odacı, H. (2017). Endorsement of traditional male role norms and marital adjustment among Turkish men. Men and Masculinities, 20(2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X15625312
• Kantar, A. (2021). The role of self-stigma and self-compassion in the relationship between masculine gender role stress and the attitudes towards seeking psychological help (Master’s Thesis), Ankara University, Ankara.
• Kantar, A., & Kök, M. (2025). Masculinity and Its Association with English-Speaking Anxiety, Self-compassion, and Perfectionistic Self-presentation. Gender Issues,42 (4), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-025-09374-8
• Kantar, A., & Yalçın, İ. (2024). Masculine gender role stress and attitudes towards seeking psychological help: serial mediation by self-stigma and self-compassion.Current Psychology,43(7), 6114-6124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04702-1
• Komiya, N., Good, G. E., & Sherrod, N. B. (2000). Emotional openness as a predictor of college students' attitudes toward seeking psychological help.Journal of Counseling Psychology,47(1), 138.
• Kök, M. (2025). An investigation of research culture on extramural English in ELT: Implications and future directions. Erzurum Technical University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 23, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.29157/etusbed.1711735
• Kök, M., & Kantar, A. (2023). The mediating role of self-disclosure in the relationship between masculine gender role stress and foreign language classroom anxiety. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching,18(2), 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2023.2248092
• Krivoshchekov, V., Gulevich, O., and Blagov, I. (2023). Traditional masculinities and men’s sexism: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 24(4). https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000444
• Kuluşaklı, E., & Genç, G. (2024). L2 communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service English teachers. Heliyon, 10(16), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32587
• Kutuk, G., Putwain, D. W., Kaye, L. K., & Garrett, B. (2021). Relations between gender stereotyping and foreign language attainment: The mediating role of language learners’ anxiety and self‐efficacy. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 212-235. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12446
• Lorber, W., & Garcia, H. A. (2010). Not supposed to feel this: traditional masculinity in psychotherapy with male veterans returning from Afghanistan and Iraq. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 47(3), 296.
• MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X960151001
• Mahalik, J. R., & Burns, S. M. (2011). Predicting health behaviors in young men that put them at risk for heart disease.Psychology of Men & Masculinity,12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021416
• Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B. D., Ludlow, L. H., Diemer, M. A., Scott, R. P. J., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3
• Mehrpoor, S., & Soleimani, N. (2018). On the relationships among EFL learners’ willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, self-perceived competence and emotional intelligence. Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 21, 5–20.
• Milani, T. (2015). Theorizing language and masculinities. In: Milani, T. (Ed.), Language and masculinities(pp.8–33). Routledge.
• Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
• Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Nunan, D., & Bailey, K. M. (2009). Exploring second language classroom research: A comprehensive guide. Heinle, Cengage Learning.
• O’Neil, J. M., Helms, B. J., Gable, R. K., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1986). Gender-role conflict scale: College men’s fear of femininity. Sex Roles, 14, 335–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287583
• Öz, H. (2015). Emotional intelligence as a predictor of L2 communication. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 186, 424-430.
• Öz, H. (2016). Role of the ideal L2 self in predicting willingness to communicate of EFL students. Research Papers as an Additional Language, 163–182
• Plante, I., De la Sablonnière, R., Aronson, J. M., & Théorêt, M. (2013). Gender stereotype endorsement and achievement-related outcomes: The role of competence beliefs and task values.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(3), 225-235.
• Pownall, M., & Heflick, N. (2023). Male psychologists and female mathematicians: Gender beliefs and undergraduate degree choices. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 34(2). DOI:10.1002/casp.2784.
• Saldana, J. (2019). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (A. Tüfekci Akca & S. N. Şad, Eds.). Pegem Akademi: Ankara.
• Schneider, M. C., & Bos, A. L. (2019). The application of social role theory to the study of gender in politics. Political Psychology, 40(S1), 173–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12573
• Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., & Bhullar, N. (2009). The assessing emotions scale. In C. Stough, D.H. Saklofske, & J. D.A. Parker (Eds.). Assessing emotional intelligence: Theory, research, and applications (pp.119–134). New York, NY: Springer.
• Şener, S. (2014). Turkish ELT students' willingness to communicate in English. ELT Research Journal, 3(2), 91-109.
• Tabatabaei, O., & Jamshidifar, M. (2013). The relationship between emotional intelligence and willingness to communicate among EFL learners. International Journal of English Language Education, 2(1), 90-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijele.v2i1.4650
• Thompson Jr, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of male role norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29(5), 531-543.
• Türkoğlu, B. (2013). Violence as a way of reconstructing manhood: The role of threatened manhood and masculine ideology on violence against women (Unpublished master’s thesis). Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye.
• Uztosun, M. S., & Kök, M. (2024). L2 skill-specific anxiety and communication apprehension: the role of extramural English in the Turkish context. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 18(1), 17-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2023.2217170
• Yaşar, M. Ö. (2020). Can MOOCs Promote EFL Learners’ English Communication Skills? Language and Technology, 2(1), 1-15.