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Gender Differences in Item Format and Skill Area: Some Evidence from an EFL Achievement Test

Year 2014, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 48 - 62, 14.07.2016

Abstract

The present study investigated the extent to which male and female language learners’ scores on achievement tests vary according to item format and skill areas. The statistical analysis of data from one achievement test administered to 303 pre-intermediate level students indicated that males and females’ scores showed differences in both item format and skill areas. While females outperformed males significantly with ‘find the correct form’ and ‘paragraph writing’ questions, males did not show any superiority in any item format. Females also outperformed males in three skill areas; ‘writing’ ‘grammar’ and ‘vocabulary’ while males scored higher only in ‘listening’. Possible reasons behind these differences between males and females’ scores can benefit future researchers, language teachers, and administrators in terms of theoretical and practical perspectives.

References

  • Modern Language Journal, 76(2), 160-176
  • Bacon, S. M. (1993). The relationship between gender, comprehension, processing strategies and cognitive and affective response in foreign language listening. Modern Language Journal, 76, 160-178.
  • Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior, vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New
  • York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
  • Bensoussan, M. & Zeidner, M. (1989). Anxiety and achievement in a multicultural situation: the oral testing of advanced English reading comprehension. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 14(1), 40-54.
  • Boyle, J. P. (1987). Sex differences in listening vocabulary. Language Learning, 37, 3273-3284.
  • Catalan, R. M. J. (2003). Sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 13(1), 54-77.
  • Daly, J. A. & Miller, M. D. (1975). Apprehension of writing as a predictor of message intensity. Journal of Psychology, , 175–177.
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ehrman, M. E. & Oxford, L. R. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 67-89.
  • Eisenstein, M. (1982). A study of social variation in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning, 32, 367-391.
  • Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Flanagan, C., Miller, C., Reuman, D., & Yee, D. (1989). Self-concepts, domain values, and self-esteem. Relations and changes in early adolescence. Journal of Personality, 57, 283-310.
  • Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Farhady, H. (1982). Measures of language proficiency from the learner’s perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 43-59.
  • Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 75, 173-180.
  • Fulcher, G. & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment. New York: Routledge.
  • Genesee, F. (1976). The role of intelligence in second language learning. Language Learning, 26(2), 267-280.
  • Gipps, C. & Murphy, P. (1994). A fair test? Assessment, achievement and equity. Buckingham: Open University Press.
  • Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning: positive strategies for advanced level language learning. Clevedon:
  • Multilingual Matters. Gu, Y. & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
  • Gu, Y. (2002). Gender, academic major, and vocabulary learning. A Journal of Language Teaching and Research, (1), 35-54.
  • Halari, R., Hines, M., Kumari, V., Mehrotra, R., Wheeler, M., Ng, V., Sharma, T. (2005). Sex Differences and Individual Differences in Cognitive Performance and Their
  • Hormones and Gonadotropins. Behavioral Halpern, D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Harris, M. & McCann, P. (1994). Assessment. Oxford: Heinemann.
  • Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Knudson, R. E. (1995). Writing experiences, attitudes, and achievement of first to sixth graders. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 90-97.
  • Krashen, S. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  • Kunnan, A. J. (1998). Approaches to validation in language assessment. In A. J. Kunnan (Ed.), Validation in language assessment (pp. 1-16). Mahwah, N.J.: LEA.
  • Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long. M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. New York: Longman.
  • Legato, M. J. (2005). Why men never remember and women never forget. New York: Rodale.
  • Levy, J. (1976). Cerebral lateralization and spatial ability. Behavior Genetics, 6, 171-188.
  • Markham, P. L. (1988). Gender differences and the perceived expertness of the speaker as factors in ESL listening recall. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 297-406.
  • Nyikos, M. (1990). Gender-related differences in adult language learning: Socialization and memory factors. Modern
  • Language Journal, 74(3), 273-287. Nyikos, M. (2008). Gender in language learning. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners: Insights for teachers and learners (pp.73-82). Cambridge University Press.
  • Obler, L. K. (1989). Exceptional second language learners. In: S. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston & L. Selinker (Eds.)
  • Variation in second language acquisition: Vol. II. Psycholinguistic Issues (pp. 141-159). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Oxford, R., Nyikos, M. & Ehrman, M. (1988) Vive la difference? Reflections on sex differences in use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 21, 321
  • Oxford, R., & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students
  • Modern Language Journal, 73(3), 291-300. Oxford, R. (1993). Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 175-187.
  • Oxford, R. L., Lavine, R. Z., Hollaway, M. E., Felkins, G., & Saleh, A. (1996). Telling their stories: Language learner use diaries and recollective studies. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross cultural perspectives (pp. 19-34). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiente, G. (1996). Predictive utility and causal influence of the writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the York.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. (1997). The predictive and mediational role of the writing self-efficacy beliefs of upper elementary students. Journal of Educational Research, 90, 353–360.
  • Pajares, F., Miller, M. D., & Johnson, M. J. (1999). Gender differences in writing self-beliefs of elementary school students. Educational Psychology, 91, 50–61.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school students:
  • A function of gender orientation? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 366-381. Politzer, R.L. (1983). An exploratory study of self-reported language learning behaviors and their relation t achievement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, 54-68.
  • Powell, R.C. (1979). Sex differences in language learning: a review of the evidence. Audiovisual Language Journal, 17(1), 24.
  • Powell, R.C. & Littlewood, P. (1983). Why choose French? Boys’ and girls’ attitudes at the option stage. The British
  • Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 21(1), 36-39. Powell, R.C. & Batters, J.D. (1985). Pupils perceptions of foreign language learning at 12+: some gender differences.
  • Educational Studies, 11(1), 12-23. Pritchard, R. M. O. (1987). Boys’ and girls’ attitudes towards French and German. Educational Research, 29(1), 65–72.
  • Rua, P. L. (2006). The sex variable in foreign language learning: an integrative approach. Porta Linguarum, 6, 99-114.
  • Ryan, J. M., & DeMark, S. (2002). Variation in Achievement Scores Related to Gender, Item Format, and Content Are
  • Tested. In G. Tindal & T. Haladyna (Eds.), Large Scale Assessment Programs for All Students: Validity, Technica Adequacy, and Implementation (pp. 67-88). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Schmenk, B. (2004). Language learning: a feminine domain? The role of stereotyping in constructing gendered learne identities. TESOL Quarterly, 38(3), 514-538.
  • Shell, D.F. (1989). Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement. Journal of
  • Educational Psychology, 81, 91-100. Slavin, R.E. (1988). Cooperative learning and student achievement. In R.E. Slavin (Ed.) School and Classroo
  • Organization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Spolsky, B. (1990). Conditions for second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Springer, S. & Deutsch, G. (1989). Left brain, right brain. New York: Freeman.
  • Sunderland, J. (1994). Exploring gender: Questions and implications for English language education. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.
  • Sunderland, J. (2000). Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language education. Language Teaching, 33, 223.
  • Van Houtte, M. (2004). Why boys achieve less at school than girls: the difference between boys' and girls' academic culture. Educational Studies, 30(2), 159-173.
  • Wilder, G. Z. & Powell, K. (1989). Sex differences in test performance: A survey of the literature. New York: College Board Publications.
  • Yang, Y. L. (2001) Sex and language proficiency level in color-naming performance: an ESL/EFL perspective.
  • International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 238-56.
Year 2014, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 48 - 62, 14.07.2016

Abstract

References

  • Modern Language Journal, 76(2), 160-176
  • Bacon, S. M. (1993). The relationship between gender, comprehension, processing strategies and cognitive and affective response in foreign language listening. Modern Language Journal, 76, 160-178.
  • Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior, vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New
  • York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998).
  • Bensoussan, M. & Zeidner, M. (1989). Anxiety and achievement in a multicultural situation: the oral testing of advanced English reading comprehension. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 14(1), 40-54.
  • Boyle, J. P. (1987). Sex differences in listening vocabulary. Language Learning, 37, 3273-3284.
  • Catalan, R. M. J. (2003). Sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 13(1), 54-77.
  • Daly, J. A. & Miller, M. D. (1975). Apprehension of writing as a predictor of message intensity. Journal of Psychology, , 175–177.
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ehrman, M. E. & Oxford, L. R. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 67-89.
  • Eisenstein, M. (1982). A study of social variation in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning, 32, 367-391.
  • Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Flanagan, C., Miller, C., Reuman, D., & Yee, D. (1989). Self-concepts, domain values, and self-esteem. Relations and changes in early adolescence. Journal of Personality, 57, 283-310.
  • Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Farhady, H. (1982). Measures of language proficiency from the learner’s perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 43-59.
  • Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 75, 173-180.
  • Fulcher, G. & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment. New York: Routledge.
  • Genesee, F. (1976). The role of intelligence in second language learning. Language Learning, 26(2), 267-280.
  • Gipps, C. & Murphy, P. (1994). A fair test? Assessment, achievement and equity. Buckingham: Open University Press.
  • Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning: positive strategies for advanced level language learning. Clevedon:
  • Multilingual Matters. Gu, Y. & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
  • Gu, Y. (2002). Gender, academic major, and vocabulary learning. A Journal of Language Teaching and Research, (1), 35-54.
  • Halari, R., Hines, M., Kumari, V., Mehrotra, R., Wheeler, M., Ng, V., Sharma, T. (2005). Sex Differences and Individual Differences in Cognitive Performance and Their
  • Hormones and Gonadotropins. Behavioral Halpern, D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Harris, M. & McCann, P. (1994). Assessment. Oxford: Heinemann.
  • Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Knudson, R. E. (1995). Writing experiences, attitudes, and achievement of first to sixth graders. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 90-97.
  • Krashen, S. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  • Kunnan, A. J. (1998). Approaches to validation in language assessment. In A. J. Kunnan (Ed.), Validation in language assessment (pp. 1-16). Mahwah, N.J.: LEA.
  • Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long. M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. New York: Longman.
  • Legato, M. J. (2005). Why men never remember and women never forget. New York: Rodale.
  • Levy, J. (1976). Cerebral lateralization and spatial ability. Behavior Genetics, 6, 171-188.
  • Markham, P. L. (1988). Gender differences and the perceived expertness of the speaker as factors in ESL listening recall. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 297-406.
  • Nyikos, M. (1990). Gender-related differences in adult language learning: Socialization and memory factors. Modern
  • Language Journal, 74(3), 273-287. Nyikos, M. (2008). Gender in language learning. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners: Insights for teachers and learners (pp.73-82). Cambridge University Press.
  • Obler, L. K. (1989). Exceptional second language learners. In: S. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston & L. Selinker (Eds.)
  • Variation in second language acquisition: Vol. II. Psycholinguistic Issues (pp. 141-159). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Oxford, R., Nyikos, M. & Ehrman, M. (1988) Vive la difference? Reflections on sex differences in use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 21, 321
  • Oxford, R., & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students
  • Modern Language Journal, 73(3), 291-300. Oxford, R. (1993). Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 175-187.
  • Oxford, R. L., Lavine, R. Z., Hollaway, M. E., Felkins, G., & Saleh, A. (1996). Telling their stories: Language learner use diaries and recollective studies. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross cultural perspectives (pp. 19-34). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiente, G. (1996). Predictive utility and causal influence of the writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the York.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. (1997). The predictive and mediational role of the writing self-efficacy beliefs of upper elementary students. Journal of Educational Research, 90, 353–360.
  • Pajares, F., Miller, M. D., & Johnson, M. J. (1999). Gender differences in writing self-beliefs of elementary school students. Educational Psychology, 91, 50–61.
  • Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school students:
  • A function of gender orientation? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 366-381. Politzer, R.L. (1983). An exploratory study of self-reported language learning behaviors and their relation t achievement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, 54-68.
  • Powell, R.C. (1979). Sex differences in language learning: a review of the evidence. Audiovisual Language Journal, 17(1), 24.
  • Powell, R.C. & Littlewood, P. (1983). Why choose French? Boys’ and girls’ attitudes at the option stage. The British
  • Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 21(1), 36-39. Powell, R.C. & Batters, J.D. (1985). Pupils perceptions of foreign language learning at 12+: some gender differences.
  • Educational Studies, 11(1), 12-23. Pritchard, R. M. O. (1987). Boys’ and girls’ attitudes towards French and German. Educational Research, 29(1), 65–72.
  • Rua, P. L. (2006). The sex variable in foreign language learning: an integrative approach. Porta Linguarum, 6, 99-114.
  • Ryan, J. M., & DeMark, S. (2002). Variation in Achievement Scores Related to Gender, Item Format, and Content Are
  • Tested. In G. Tindal & T. Haladyna (Eds.), Large Scale Assessment Programs for All Students: Validity, Technica Adequacy, and Implementation (pp. 67-88). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Schmenk, B. (2004). Language learning: a feminine domain? The role of stereotyping in constructing gendered learne identities. TESOL Quarterly, 38(3), 514-538.
  • Shell, D.F. (1989). Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement. Journal of
  • Educational Psychology, 81, 91-100. Slavin, R.E. (1988). Cooperative learning and student achievement. In R.E. Slavin (Ed.) School and Classroo
  • Organization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Spolsky, B. (1990). Conditions for second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Springer, S. & Deutsch, G. (1989). Left brain, right brain. New York: Freeman.
  • Sunderland, J. (1994). Exploring gender: Questions and implications for English language education. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.
  • Sunderland, J. (2000). Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language education. Language Teaching, 33, 223.
  • Van Houtte, M. (2004). Why boys achieve less at school than girls: the difference between boys' and girls' academic culture. Educational Studies, 30(2), 159-173.
  • Wilder, G. Z. & Powell, K. (1989). Sex differences in test performance: A survey of the literature. New York: College Board Publications.
  • Yang, Y. L. (2001) Sex and language proficiency level in color-naming performance: an ESL/EFL perspective.
  • International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 238-56.
There are 61 citations in total.

Details

Other ID JA46AP93DM
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Ayşe Engin This is me

Deniz Ortaçtepe This is me

Publication Date July 14, 2016
Published in Issue Year 2014 Volume: 4 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Engin, A., & Ortaçtepe, D. (2016). Gender Differences in Item Format and Skill Area: Some Evidence from an EFL Achievement Test. The Journal of Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 48-62.