AN ASSESSMENT ON WILDLIFE FEEDING

Abstract

One of the most important components of the world ecosystem is undoubtedly wildlife. However, environmental extinction and climate change due to developing technology and industrial development harm wildlife, as well as all other natural riches. It is a well-known fact that wild animals are rapidly damaged and are in danger of extinction, especially as a result of the deterioration of wildlife habitats. Wild animals perform many vital activities such as hiding, sheltering, navigating and feeding in their habitats. However, the deterioration in the habitats of wild animals will greatly prevent them from performing their most basic needs such as feeding, nesting, sheltering, and hiding. Wild animals absolutely need a balanced and healthy diet in order to sustain their lives in the best way possible and to raise strong and healthy individuals for future generations. Although the types and amounts of wild animals' nutrients in the natural environment vary according to the seasons, they are sufficient for them under normal conditions. However, as a result of different unnatural effects, deterioration in habitats or abnormal seasonal changes cause changes in the food of many wild animals and difficulties in finding food for wild animal species. In this difficult period of wild animals, before they reach a point of no return for wildlife, the institutions and organizations that are authorized in this regard or sensitive people try to feed wild animals and try to help them get through this difficult period with the least damage. However, in recent years, the increasing interest in wildlife nutrition by people has started to make this activity a recreation-based sector over time. This sector, known as wildlife tourism, causes results that significantly affect to wildlife today. This activity, which started with human feelings for the purpose of helping wildlife, has reached a level that will cause significant harm to wildlife as a result of increasing tourism activities. In this study, in which we try to determine the status of feeding of wildlife today, the positive and negative effects of wildlife nutrition on wildlife and the extent of wildlife nutrition in the world and in our country have been tried to be revealed by researching existing studies.

Keywords

• Wildlife
• feeding
• harm
• benefit
• tourism

YABAN HAYATI BESLEMESİ ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME

Abstract

Yaban hayatı tüm doğal zenginlikler gibi iklim değişikliği ve buna bağlı olarak habitat bozulmalarının bir sonucu olarak hızla zarar görmekte ve tehlikeye düşmektedir. Habitat bozulmaları yuvalanma, barınma ve gizlenme gibi yaşam alanı daralmalarının yanında yaban hayvanlarının en temel gereksinimi olan besin ihtiyacını da önemli ölçüde etkilemektedir. Yaban hayvanları yaşamlarını en iyi şekilde sürdürebilmek, gelecek nesillere güçlü bireyler yetiştirmek için dengeli ve sağlıklı bir beslenmeye ihtiyaç duyarlar. Ancak gerek farklı etkiler sonucu meydana gelen habitat bozulmaları, gerekse de mevsime bağlı besin değişiklikleri türlerin besin bulmasında zorluk çekmelerine sebep olmaktadır. Bu noktada yetkili birimler ya da bireyler yaban hayvanlarını besleme yöntemine giderek onların bu zorlu dönemi en düşük zarar ile atlatmalarına yardımcı olmaya çalışmaktadırlar. Ancak yaban hayatı beslenmesine artan ilgi bu faaliyeti zaman içinde rekreasyon temelli bir sektör haline getirmeye başlamıştır. Yaban hayatı turizmi olarak bilinen bu sektör günümüzde yaban hayatını belirgin olarak etkileyen sonuçlara sebep olmuştur. Bu çalışmada yaban hayatı beslemesinin yaban hayatı üzerine olan olumlu ve olumsuz etkilerinin neler olduğu, dünyada ve ülkemizde yaban hayatı beslemesinin hangi boyutlarda olduğu mevcut çalışmalar araştırılarak ortaya konmuştur.

Keywords

• Yaban hayatı
• besleme
• zarar
• fayda
• turizm

References

1. 1. Aggimarangsee, N. (1993). Survey for semi-tame colonies of macaques in Thailand. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 40, 103-166.
2. 2. Albert, D.M. & Bowyer, R.T. (1991). Factors related to Grizzly bear human interactions in Denali National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 19, 339-349.
3. 3. Ayberk H. (2003). Yaban hayvanlarında kış yemlemesi. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 52 (2), 79-86.
4. 4. Ayeni, J.S.O. (1977). Waterholes in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Journal of Applied Ecology, 14, 369-378.
5. 5. Baker, D.L. & Hobbs, T.N. (1985). Emergency feeding of mule deer during winter: tests of a supplemental ration. Journal of Wildlife Managemed, 49, 934-942.
6. 6. Bryant, L. (1994). Report to Congress on Results of Feeding Wild Dolphins, 1989–1994. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service.
7. 7. Campbell, T.A., Long, D.B. & Shriner, S.A. (2013). Wildlife contact rates at artificial feeding sites in Texas. Environmental Management 51, 1187-1193.
8. 8. Cannon, A. (1999). The significance of private gardens for bird conservation. Bird Conservation International, 9, 287-297.

9. 9. Cannon, C.E. (1984). Movements of lorikeets with an artificially supplemented diet. Australian Wildlife Research, 11, 173-179.
10. 10. Chace, J.F. & Walsh, J.J. (2006). Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landscape Urban Plan. 74, 46-69.
11. 11. Corkeron, P.J. (1990). Aspects of the behavioural ecology of inshore dolphins Tursiops truncatus and Sousa chinensis in Moreton Bay, Australia. In Leatherwood S., Reeves, R. R. Editors. The bottlenose dolphin. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
12. 12. Croft, D.B. & Leiper, N. (2001). Assessment of Opportunities for Overseas Tourism Based on Wild Kangaroos, Wildlife Tourism Research Report No. 17., Gold Coast, Queensland: CRC for Sustainable Tourism.
13. 13. Crome, F. H. J. & Moore, L.A. (1990). Cassowaries in northeastern queensland: report of a survey and a review and assessment of their status and conservation and management Needs. Australian Wildlife Research, 17, 369-85.
14. 14. Çanakçıoğlu H. & Mol T. (1996). Yaban Hayatı Bilgisi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayın no:3948, Fakülte Yayın No:440.
15. 15. Deis, R. (1986). Is bird feeding a no-no? Defenders, 54, 17-18.
16. 16. Doenier, P.B., DelGiudice, G.D. & Riggs, M.R. (1997). Effects of winter supplemental feeding on browse consumption by white-tailed deer. Wildl. Soc. Bull, 25, 235-243.
17. 17. Dubosin, S. & Fraser D. (2013). A Framework to Evaluate Wildlife Feeding in Research, Wildlife Management, Tourism and Recreation. Animals 2013, 3, 978-994.
18. 18. Duffus, D.A. & Dearden, P. (1990). Non-consumptive wildlife oriented recreation: a conceptual framework. Biological Conservation, 53, 213-231.
19. 19. Flinchum, G.B. (1997). Management of waterfowl. In: Altman, R., Clubb, S., Dorrestein, G., Queensberry, K. editors, Avian Medicine and Surgery. WB Saunders Company, Toronto, pp. 831-848.
20. 20. Gauthier, D.A. (1993). Sustainable development, tourism an wildlife. In: Nelson, J. G., Butler, R. W., Wall G., editors. Tourism and sustainable development: monitoring, planning and managing, Heritage Resources Centre joint Publication No. 1. Ont., Canada: University of Waterloo.
21. 21. Gill, R.B. (2002). Build and experience and they will come: managing the biology of wildlife viewing for benefits to people and wildlife. In Manfredo , J. editor. Wildlife Viewing: A Management HandbookOregon State University Press. pp. 218-251.
22. 22. Higginbottom, K. (2004). Wildlife Tourism Impacts, Management and Planning Sustainable Tourism. Common Ground Publishing, 302 p.
23. 23. Hockett, K.S. (2000). The effectiveness of two interpretations on reducing deer feeding behavior by park visitors. Master’s thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.
24. 24. Howard, P. & Jones, D.N. (2004). A qualitative study of wildlife feeding in south-east Queensland. In Lunney, D., Burgin, S. Editors. Urban Wildlife: more than meets the eye, Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman pp 55 – 62.
25. 25. Jones, C.G., Heck, W., Lewis, R.E., Mungroo, Y., Slade, G. & Cade, T. (1995). The restoration of the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus population. Ibis, 137(1), 173-180.
26. 26. Jones, D. (2011). An appetite for connection: why we need to understand the effect and value of feeding wild birds. Emu- Austral Ornithology,111(2), 1-7.
27. 27. Jones, D.N. & Reynolds, S.J. (2008). Feeding birds in our towns and cities: a global research opportunity. J. Avian Biol. 39, 265-271.
28. 28. Jones, D.N. & Howard, P. (2001). Feeding wildlife-An indecent obsession. Wildlife Aust., 38, 18-20.
29. 29. Kandır, E.H. (2017). Yaban hayvanlarında kış yemlemesi yapalım mı? Göller Bölgesi Aylık Hakemli Ekonomi ve Kültür Dergisi 56, 25-30.
30. 30. Knight, R.L. & Temple, S.A. (1995). Origin of wildlife responses to recreationists. In Knight R. L., Gutzwiller, K. J. editors. Wildlife and Recreationists: Coexistence Through Management and Research, Washington, DC Island Press. pp. 81-91.
31. 31. Kofron, C.P. (1999). Attacks to humans and domestic animals by the Southern Cassowary (Casuaris casuaris johnsonii) in Queensland, Australia. London Zoological Journal, 249, 375-381.
32. 32. MacRae, D. (1997). The ultimate roadside diner. Wildlife Conservation, 101(1), 72.
33. 33. Marion, J.L., Dvorak, R.G. & Manning, R.E. (2008). Wildlife feeding in parks: methods for monitoring the effectiveness of educational interventions and wildlife food attraction behaviors. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 13, 429–442.
34. 34. Milazzo, M., Badalamenti, T., Fernandez, V. & Chemello, R. (2005). Effects of fish feeding by snorkellers on the density and size distribution of fishes in a Mediterranean marine protected area. Marine Biology, 146, 1213-1222.
35. 35. Murray, M.H., Becker, D.J., Hall, R.J. & Hernandez, S.M. (2016). Wildlife health and supplemental feeding: A review and management recommendations. Biological Conservation, 204, 163-174.
36. 36. Newsome, D., Dowling, R. & Moore, S. (2005). Wildlife Tourism. Channel View Publications, Clevedon.
37. 37. Newsome, D. & Roger, K. (2008). To feed or not to feed: a contentious issue in wildlife tourism. Too close for comfort: contentious issues in human-wildlife encounters. Royal Zoological Society, 34, 255-270.
38. 38. O’Leary, R. & Jones, D. N. (2006). The use of supplementary foods by Australian magpies Gymnorhina tibicen: Implications for wildlife feeding in suburban environments. Austral Ecology, 31, 208-216.
39. 39. Orams, M.B. (2002). Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: a review of issues and impacts. Tourism Management, 23, 281-293.
40. 40. Orams, M.B. (1995). Development and management of a wild dolphin feeding program at Tangalooma, Australia. Aquatic Mammals, 21, 39-51.
41. 41. Orams, M.B. & Deakin, R.B. (1997). Report on the healing of a large wound in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). In: Hindell, M., Kemper, C. editors, Marine mammal research in the southern hemisphere Vol. 1: Status, ecology and medicine. Chipping, Norton: Surrey, Beatty and Sons.
42. 42. Orams, M.B., Hill, G.J.E. & Baglioni, A.J. (1996). ‘‘Pushy’’ behavior in a wild dolphin feeding program at Tangalooma, Australia. Marine Mammal Science, 12, 107-117.
43. 43. Özkazanç N.K. & Özay, E. (2019). Göçmen kuşları tehdit eden faktörler. Bartın University International Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, 2(1), 77-89.
44. 44. Page, B.D. & Underwood, H.B., (2006). Comparing protein and energy status of winter-fed white-tailed deer. Wildl. Soc. Bull, 34, 716-724.
45. 45. Parsons, H., Major, R.E. & French, K. (2006). Species interactions and habitat associations of birds inhabiting urban areas of Sydney, Australia. Austral. Ecol. 31, 217-227.
46. 46. Perkins J.R. (1991). Supplemental feding. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Fisheries & Wildlife Division. Contribution of Federal Aid Project W-129-M.
47. 47. Petterson, R.T. (2000). Feeder Birds. Peterson Field Guide to Feeder Birds of Eastern North America. Houghton Mifflin Publisher, New York.
48. 48. Raman, T.R.S., Menon, R.K.G. & Sukumar, R. (1996). Ecology and management of chital and blackbuck in Guindy National Park, Madras. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 93(1), 178-192.
49. 49. Robb, G.N., McDonald, R.A., Chamberlain, D.E. & Bearhop, S. (2008). Food for thought: supplementary feeding as a driver of ecological change in avian populations. Front. Ecol. Environ. 6, 476-484.
50. 50. Robinson, R.M., Ray, A.C., Reagor, J.C. & Holland, L.A. (1982). Waterfowl mortality caused by aflatoxicosis in Texas. J. Wildl. Dis, 18, 311-313.
51. 51. Roe, D., Leader-Williams, N. & Dalal-Clayton, D. (1997). Take Only Photographs, Leave Only Footprints: The Environmental Impacts of Wildlife Tourism. Environmental Planning Group, International Institute for Environment and Development. London.
52. 52. Roosendaal B. (1973). Wildlife nutrition and feeding. Anim. Nutr. Consutants, 11, 1-15.
53. 53. Rowan, A.N. & Beck, A.M. (1994). The health benefits of human-animal interaction. Anthrozoos, 7(2), 85-89.
54. 54. Skira, I., Smith, S. (1991). Feeding wildlife in national parks. Proceedings of the fifth Australian seminar on national parks and wildlife, Tasmania, Australia.
55. 55. Sorensena, A., Van Beesta, F.M. & Brooka, R.K. (2014). Impacts of wildlife baiting and supplemental feedingon infectious disease transmission risk: A synthesisof knowledge. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 113, 356-363.
56. 56. St Leger, L. (2003). Health and nature–new challenges for health promotion. Health Promot. Int. 18, 173-175.
57. 57. Steyaert, S.M.J.G., Kindberg, J., Jerina, K., Krofel, M., Stergar, M., Swenson, J.E. & Zedrosser, A. (2014). Behavioral correlates of supplementary feeding of wildlife: Can general conclusions be drawn? Basic and Applied Ecology 15, 669-676.
58. 58. Thompson, J., Shirreffs, L., McPhail, I. (2003). Dingoes on fraser island-tourism dream or management nightmare. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 8, 37-47.
59. 59. Totton, S.C., Tinline, R.R., Rosatte, R.C. & Bigler, L.L. (2002). Contact rates of raccoons (Procyon lotor) at a communal feedıng site in rural eastern Ontario. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 38(2), 313-319. 60. URL 1 2023, https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/DKMP/Menu/19/Yaban-Hayati-Istatistikleri.
60. 61. Ward, J.M. & Kennedy, P.L. (1996). Effects of supplemental food on size and survival of juvenile Northern Goshawks. The Auk, 113, 200-208.
61. 62. Wilbur, S.R., Carrier, W.D. & Borneman, J.C. (1974). Supplementary feeding program for California condors. Journal of Wildlife Management, 38, 343-346.
62. 63. Wilcoxen, T.E., Horn, D.J., Hogan, B.M., Hubble, C.N., Huber, S.J., Flamm, J., Knott, M., Lundstrom, L., Salik, F., Wassenhove, S.J. & Wrobel, E.R. (2015). Effects of bird-feeding activities on the health of wild birds. Conserv. Physiol. 3, 1-13.
63. 64. Wilkins N., Brown R.D. &Steinbach D.W. (1999). Reducing Risks To Wildlife From Corn Contaminated With Aflatoxins. Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Texas A&M University, Annual Report (1997–1998), College Station.
64. 65. Williamson S. J. (2000). Feeding wildlife–just say no!. Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, DC.
65. 66. Wilson, B. (1994). Review of Dolphin Management at Monkey Mia. Perth, Western Australia: Unpublished report to Department of Conservation and Land Management.
66. 67. Wilson, W.H. (2001). The effects of supplementary feeding on wintering black-capped chickadess (Poecile atricapilla) in central Maine: population and individual responses. The Wilson Bulletin, 113, 65-72.