Electrochemical Determination of Tricyclic Antidepressants: Mechanisms, Sensor Technologies, and Analytical Trends
Abstract
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) constitute an important class of psychotropic drugs widely prescribed for major depressive and anxiety disorders. Owing to their narrow therapeutic range and significant toxicity at elevated plasma concentrations, the precise quantification of TCAs in pharmaceutical formulations and biological fluids is essential for therapeutic drug monitoring. Spanning the period from the first electrochemical reports in 1984 to the most recent developments in 2025, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the electrochemical behavior of TCAs, emphasizing structure–reactivity relationships, oxidation mechanisms, and the evolution of electrode materials used for their voltammetric detection. Particular attention is given to advances in noble-metal, carbon-based, polymer-modified, nanocomposite, molecularly imprinted, and biofunctionalized electrodes, as well as emerging hybrid biosensing and microextraction-voltammetry platforms. The review further examines analytical performance relative to conventional techniques and highlights applications in pharmaceutical and biological matrices. Additionally, miniaturization, biocompatibility integration, sustainable sensor design, and machine learning-enhanced voltammetric data analysis have been explored to establish a roadmap for the future clinical translation of the TCA's electrochemical detection approach.
Keywords
References
- 1. Woody CA, Ferrari AJ, Siskind DJ, Whiteford HA, Harris MG. A systematic review and meta-regression of the prevalence and incidence of perinatal depression. J Affect Disord. 2017 Sep;219:86–92. Available from:
. - 2. Evans-Lacko S, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Benjet C, Bruffaerts R, et al. Socio-economic variations in the mental health treatment gap for people with anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders: Results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Psychol Med. 2018 Jul 27;48(9):1560–71. Available from:
. - 3. Cuijpers P, Oud M, Karyotaki E, Noma H, Quero S, Cipriani A, et al. Psychologic treatment of depression compared with pharmacotherapy and combined treatment in primary care: A network meta-analysis. Ann Fam Med. 2021 May 10;19(3):262–70. Available from:
. - 4. Gao K, Oruc EB, Koparal B. Pharmacological monotherapy for depressive disorders: Current and future—A narrative review. Medicina. 2025 Mar 21;61(4):558. Available from:
. - 5. Martin DM, Jones J, Costantino A, Kaushik S, Gold MS. Characteristics and laboratory testing standards for drugs of abuse. In: England JD, editor. Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology. Elsevier; 2023. p. 277–302. Available from:
. - 6. Marasine NR, Sankhi S, Lamichhane R, Marasini NR, Dangi NB. Use of antidepressants among patients diagnosed withdepression: A scoping review. Iannotti F, editor. Biomed Res Int. 2021 Jan 15;2021(1):6699028. Available from:
. - 7. Mercolini L. Editorial: Advances in therapeutic drug monitoring of psychiatric subjects: Analytical strategies and clinical approaches. Front Psychiatry. 2022 Oct 18;13:1056380. Available from:
. - 8. Burke MJ, Preskorn SH. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antidepressants. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1999;37(2):147–65. Available from:
.
Details
Primary Language
English
Subjects
Electroanalytical Chemistry
Journal Section
Review
Publication Date
July 31, 2026
Submission Date
May 6, 2026
Acceptance Date
June 30, 2026
Published in Issue
Year 2026 Volume: 2026 Number: 2
