Vaccination and neurological disorders

Abstract

Active immunization of children has been proven very effective in elimination of life threatening complications of many infectious diseases in developed countries. However, as vaccination-preventable infectious diseases and their complications have become rare, the interest focuses on immunization-related adverse reactions. Unfortunately, fear of vaccination-related adverse effects can led to decreased vaccination coverage and subsequent epidemics of infectious diseases. This review includes reports about possible side effects following vaccinations in children with neurological disorders and also published recommendations about vaccinating children with neurological disorders. From all international published data anyone can conclude that vaccines are safer than ever before, but the challenge remains to convey this message to society.

Keywords

• immunization, vaccination, children, neurological disorders, infectious

References

1. Pruna D, Balestri P, Zamponi N, et al. Epilepsy and vaccinations: Italian guidelines. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 7:13-22.
2. Tanabe T, Tagawa T, Arai H, et al. Survey of Japanese pediatricians on vaccination of children with 2011;53(5):626-629. Pediatr Int.
3. Freed GL, Clark SJ, Hibbs BF, Santoli JM. Parental vaccine safety concerns. The experiences of pediatricians and family physicians. Am J Prev Med. 2004; 26:11.
4. Patterson JL, Carapetian SA, Hageman JR, Kelley KR. 2013;42(12):249-254. Pediatr Ann.
5. Griffin MR, Ray WA, Mortimer EA, et al. Risk of seizures and encephalopathy after immunization with the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine. JAMA. 1990;263(12):1641-1645.
6. Barlow WE, Davis RL, Glasser JW, et al, for the Centers for Disease Control, Prevention Vaccine Safety Datalink Working Group. The risk of seizures after receipt of whole-cell pertussis or measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2001 30;345(9):656-661.
7. Jacobsen SJ, Ackerson BK, Sy LS, et al. Observational safety study of febrile convulsion following first dose MMRV vaccination in a managed 2009;27(34):4656-4661. setting. Vaccine.
8. Tse A, Tseng HF, Greene SK, et al; VSD Rapid Cycle Analysis Influenza Working Group. Signal identification and evaluation for risk of febrile seizures in children following trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in the Vaccine Safety Datalink Project, 2010-2011. Vaccine. 2012;30(11):2024- 2031.

9. Farrington P, Pugh S, Colville A, et al. A new method for active surveillance of adverse events from measles/mumps/rubella 1995;345(8949):567-569. and vaccines. Lancet. acute immunization with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine. A population-based casecontrol study JAMA. 1994;271(1):37-41. illness after
10. Farrington CP, Nash J, Miller E. Case series analysis of adverse reactions to vaccines: a comparative evaluation. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;143(11):1165-1173.
11. David S, Vermeer-de Bondt PE, van derMaas NAT. Reactogenicity of infant whole cell pertussis combination vaccine compared with acellular pertussis vaccines with or without simultaneous inNetherlands. Vaccine. 2008;26(46):5883-5887. vaccine
12. Sun Y, Christensen J, Hviid A, et al. Risk of febrile seizures and epilepsy after vaccination with diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, inactivated influenzae type B. JAMA. 2012;307:823–831.
13. Davis RL1, Barlow W. Placing the risk of seizures with pediatric vaccines in a clinical context. Paediatr Drugs. 2003;5(11):717-722.
14. Le Saux N, Barrowman NJ, Moore DL, et al; Canadian Paediatric Society/ Health Canada Immunization (IMPACT). Decrease in hospital admissions for febrile hypotonichyporesponsive episodes presenting to hospital emergency departments since switching to acellular pertussis vaccine in Canada: a report from IMPACT. Pediatrics. 2003;112:e348–e353.
15. Vestergaard M, Hviid A, Madsen KM, et al. MMR vaccination and febrile seizures evaluation of prognosis. JAMA. 2004; 292:351–357. and long-term
16. Miller E, Andrews N, Stowe J, et al. Risks of convulsion and aseptic meningitis following measlesmumps-rubella vaccination in the United Kingdom. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:704–709.
17. Hambidge SJ, Newcomer SR, Narwaney KJ, et al. Timely vaccination 2014;133(6):e1492-1499. early childhood Pediatrics. and seizures.
18. Rowhani-Rahbar A, Fireman B, Lewis E, et al. Effect of age on the risk of fever and seizures following immunization with measles-containing vaccines 2013;167(12):1111-1117. JAMA Pediatr.
19. Klein NP, Fireman B, Yih WK, et al; Vaccine Safety varicella combination vaccine and the risk of febrile seizures. Pediatrics. 2010;126(1):e1-8.
20. MacDonald SE, Dover DC, Simmonds KA, Svenson LW. Risk of febrile seizures after first dose of measles-mumps-rubella-varicella vaccine: a 2014;186(11):824-829. study. CMAJ.
21. Schink T, Holstiege J, Kowalzik F, et al. Risk of febrile convulsions after MMRV vaccination in comparison to MMR or MMR+V vaccination. Vaccine. 2014;32(6):645-650.
22. Ward KN, Bryant NJ, Andrews NJ, et al. Risk of serious neurologic disease after immunization of young children in Britain and Ireland. Pediatrics. 2007;120(2):314-321.
23. Morris SA, Bernstein HH. Immunizations, neonatal jaundice, and animal-induced injuries. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2004;16(4):450-460.
24. Schmitt HJ, Faber J, Lorenz I, et al. The safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of a 7-valent pneumococcal concurrently administered with a combination DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccine. Vaccine. 2003;21(25- 26):3653-3662. vaccine (7VPnC)
25. Leroy Z, Broder K, Menschik D, et al. Febrile seizures after 2010-2011 influenza vaccine in young children, United States: a vaccine safety signal from the vaccine adverse event reporting system. Vaccine. 2012;30:2020-2023.
26. Mitrakrishnan S, Ranjanie G, Thirunavakarasu T, et al. Seizures and retrograde amnesia with cerebrospinal fluid changes following H1N1 influenza vaccination. Vaccine. 2011;29:6369- 7630.
27. Polkinghorne BG, Muscatello DJ, Macintyre CR, et al. Relationship between the population incidence of febrile convulsions in young children in Sydney, Australia and seasonal epidemics of influenza and respiratory syncytial virus, 2003- 2010: a time series analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:291.
28. Stowe J, Andrews N, Bryan P, et al. Risk of convulsions in children after monovalent H1N1 (2009) and trivalent influenza vaccines: a database study. Vaccine. 2011;29(51):9467-9472.
29. Arnheim-Dahlström L, Hällgren J, Weibull CE, Sparén P. Risk of presentation to hospital with epileptic monovalent AS03 adjuvanted pandemic A/H1N1 2009 controlled case series study. BMJ. 2012 18;345:e7594. vaccination with influenza (Pandemrix): self
30. Broder KR, Martin DB, Vellozzi C. In the heat of a signal: responding to a vaccine safety signal for febrile seizures after 2010-11 influenza vaccine in young children, United States. Vaccine. 2012 2;30(11):2032-2034.
31. Tartof SY, Tseng HF, Liu AL, et al. Exploring the risk factors for vaccine-associated and non- vaccine associated febrile seizures in a large pediatric cohort. Vaccine. 2014 7;32(22):2574
32. Dravet C, Oguni H. Dravet syndrome (severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy). Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:627-633.
33. Verbeek NE, van der Maas NA, Jansen FE, et al. Prevalence of SCN1A-related dravet syndrome among children reported with seizures following vaccination: a population-based ten-year cohort study. PLoS One. 2013;8(6):e65758.
34. Ben-Menachem E. Vaccination and the onset of dravet syndrome. Epilepsy Curr. 2011;11(4):120- 122.
35. Reyes IS, Hsieh DT, Laux LC, Wilfong AA. Alleged rediagnosed years later as Dravet syndrome. Pediatrics. 2011;128(3):e699-702.
36. McIntosh AM, McMahon J, Dibbens LM, et al. Effects of vaccination on onset and outcome of Dravet syndrome: a retrospective study. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(6):592-598.
37. Tro-Baumann B, von Spiczak S, Lotte J, et al. A retrospective study of the relation between vaccination and occurrence of seizures in Dravet syndrome. Epilepsia. 2011;52(1):175-178.
38. Cendes F1, Sankar R. Vaccinations and febrile seizures. Epilepsia. 2011;52 Suppl 3:23-25.
39. Zamponi N, Passamonti C, Petrelli C, et al. Vaccination and occurrence of seizures in SCN1A mutation-positive patients: a multicenter Italian study. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;50(3):228-232.
40. Tanabe T, Awaya Y, Matsuishi T, et al. Survey of vaccination and viral infections for children with severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy No To Hattatsu. 2004;36(4):318-323.
41. Berkovic SF, Harkin L, McMahon JM, et al. De- novo mutations of the sodium channel gene SCN1A in alleged vaccine encephalopathy: a retrospective 2006;5(6):488-492. Lancet Neurol.
42. Mikaeloff Y, Caridade G, Rossier M, et al. Hepatitis B vaccination and the risk of childhood- onset multiple sclerosis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(12):1176-1182.
43. Farez MF, Correale J. Immunizations and risk of multiple sclerosis: systematic review and meta- analysis. J Neurol. 2011;258(7):1197-1206.
44. Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety, 11–12 December 2013. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2014;89(7):53-60.
45. Arnheim-Dahlström L, Pasternak B, Svanström H, et al. Autoimmune, neurological, and venous thromboembolic immunisation quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in Denmark and Sweden: cohort study. BMJ. 2013 9; 347. events after with of adolescent girls
46. Chao C, Klein NP, Velicer CM, et al. Surveillance of autoimmune conditions following routine use of quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine. J Intern Med. 2012;271(2):193-203.
47. Descamps D, Hardt K, Spiessens B,, et al. Safety of human papillomavirus (HPV)-16/18 AS04- adjuvanted prevention: a pooled analysis of 11 clinical trials. Hum Vaccin. 2009;5(5):332-340. cancer
48. Zipp F, Weil JG, Einhaupl KM. No increase in diseases vaccination. Nat Med. 1999;5(9):964-965. after hepatitis B
49. Sadovnick AD, Scheifele DW. School-based vaccination multiple adolescent 2000;355(9203):549-550. programme and sclerosis. Lancet.
50. Ascherio A, Zhang SM, Hernan MA, et al. Hepatitis B vaccination and the risk of multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(5):327-332.
51. DeStefano F, Verstraeten T, Jackson LA, et al; Vaccine Safety Datalink Research Group, National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccinations and risk of central nervous system demyelinating diseases in adults. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(4):504- 509.
52. DeStefano F, Weintraub ES, Chen RT. Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine and the risk of multiple Neurology. 2005;64(7):1317. prospective study.
53. Merelli E, Casoni F. Prognostic factors in multiple sclerosis: role of intercurrent infections and vaccinations against influenza and hepatitis B. Neurol Sci. 2000;21(4 Suppl 2):S853-856.
54. Mikaeloff Y, Caridade G, Assi S, et al.; KIDSEP study group of the French Neuropaediatric Society. Hepatitis B vaccine and risk of relapse after a first childhood episode of CNS inflammatory demyelination. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 4):1105-1110.
55. Ahlgren C, Odén A, Torén K, Andersen O. Multiple sclerosis incidence in the era of measles- mumps-rubella mass vaccinations. Acta Neurol Scand. 2009;119(5):313-320.
56. Ahlgren C, Torén K, Odén A, Andersen O. A population-based case-control study on viral infections and vaccinations and subsequent multiple sclerosis risk. Eur J Epidemiol. 2009;24(9):541-552.
57. Rutschmann OT, McCrory DC, Matchar DB. Immunization and MS: a summary of published evidence and recommendations. Neurology. 2002; 59: 1837–1843.
58. Department of Developmental Services. Changes in the population of persons with autism and pervasive developmental disorders in California's developmental services system: 1987 through 1998. A Report to the Legislature. California Health and Human Services, March 1, 1999.
59. Kern JK, Geier DA, Sykes LK, Geier MR: Evidence spectrum 2013;2(1):17. in autism Transl Neurodegener.
60. Davidovitch M, Glick L, Holtzman G, et al. Developmental regression in autism: maternal perception. J Autism Dev Disord. 2000; 30:113– 119.
61. Wakefield AJ, Montgomery SM: Autism, viral infection vaccination. Isr Med Assoc J 1999; 1:183–187.
62. Deer B. How the case against the MMR vaccine was fixed. BMJ 2011; 342:c5347.
63. Retraction--Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet 2010; 375:445.
64. Murch SH, Anthony A, Casson DH, et al. Retraction of an interpretation. Lancet 2004; 363:750.
65. Geier DA, Geier MR. A comparative evaluation of the effects of MMR immunization and mercury doses from thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines on the population prevalence of autism. Med Sci Monit. 2004;10(3):PI33-39
66. Geier DA, Geier MR. Pediatric MMR Vaccination Safety. Int Pediatr. 2003; 18:108–
67. Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, et al. A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347:1477–1482.
68. Uno Y, Uchiyama T, Kurosawa M, et al. The combined measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines and the total number of vaccines are not associated with development of autism spectrum disorder: the first case–control study in Asia. Vaccine. 2012; 30:4292–4298.
69. Mrozek-Budzyn D, Kieltyka A, Majewska R. Lack of association between measles-mumps- rubella vaccination and autism in children: a case–control study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010; 29:397–400.
70. Fombonne E, Zakarian R, Bennett A, et al. Pervasive developmental disorders in Montreal, Quebec, Canada: prevalence and links with immunizations. Pediatrics. 2006; 118:e139–150.
71. DeStefano F, Bhasin TK, Thompson WW, et al. Age at first measles-mumps-rubella vaccination in children with autism and school-matched control subjects: a population-based study in metropolitan atlanta. Pediatrics. 2004; 113:259– 266.
72. Farrington CP, Miller E, Taylor B. MMR and autism: further evidence against a causal association. Vaccine. 2001;19(27):3632-3635.
73. Miller E. Measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and the development of autism. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 2003;14(3):199-206.
74. Dales L, Hammer SJ, Smith NJ. Time trends in autism and in MMR immunization coverage in California. JAMA. 2001; 285:1183.
75. Taylor B, Miller E, Farrington CP, et al. Autism and measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological evidence for a causal association. Lancet. 1999; 353:2026.
76. Fombonne E, Zakarian R, Bennett A, et al. Pervasive developmental disorders in Montreal, Quebec, Canada: prevalence and links with immunizations. Pediatrics. 2006; 118:e139.
77. Smeeth L, Cook C, Fombonne E, et al. MMR vaccination disorders: a case-control study. Lancet. 2004; 364:963. developmental
78. Mäkelä A, Nuorti JP, Peltola H. Neurologic disorders vaccination. Pediatrics. 2002; 110:957.
79. measles-mumps-rubella
80. Peltola H, Patja A, Leinikki P, et al. No evidence for measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine- associated inflammatory bowel disease or autism in a 14-year prospective study. Lancet. 1998; 351:1327.
81. Honda H, Shimizu Y, Rutter M. No effect of MMR withdrawal on the incidence of autism: a total study. Psychiatry. 2005; 46:572. J Child Psychol
82. Hooker BS. Measles-mumps-rubella vaccination timing and autism among young african american boys: a reanalysis of CDC data. Transl Neurodegener. 2014 8;3:16.
83. Immunization Safety Review: Measles-Mumps- Rubella Vaccine and Autism, Stratton K, Wilson CB, McCormick MC (Eds), The National Academies Press, Washington, DC 2001.
84. Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. A report of the Institute of Medicine., The National Academies Press, Washington, DC 2004.
85. Baird G, Pickles A, Simonoff E, et al. Measles vaccination and antibody response in autism spectrum disorders. Arch Dis Child. 2008; 93:832.
86. Health Protection Agency. COVER programme: January to March 2003. Commun Dis Rep CDR Wkly (serial online) 2003; 13.
87. Sell E, Minassian BA. Demystifying vaccination
88. encephalopathy. associated
89. 2006;5(6):465-466. Lancet Neurol.
90. Young HA, Geier DA, Geier MR: Thimerosal exposure in infants and neurodevelopmental disorders: an assessment of computerized medical records in the Vaccine Safety Datalink. J Neurol Sci. 2008; 271:110–118.
91. Gallagher CM, Goodman MS: Hepatitis B vaccination of male neonates and autism diagnosis, NHIS 1997–2002. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2010;73(24):1665-1677.
92. Geier DA, Geier MR: A meta-analysis epidemiological neurodevelopmental disorders following vaccines administered from 1994 through 2000 in the United 2006;27(4):401-413. assessment of States. Endocrinol Lett.
93. Geier DA, Hooker BS, Kern JK, et al. A two- phase study evaluating the relationship between Thimerosal-containing vaccine administration and the risk for an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in the United States. Transl Neurodegener. 2013 19;2(1):25.
94. Hviid A, Stellfeld M, Wohlfahrt J, Melbye M: Association vaccine and autism. JAMA. 2003; 290:1763– 1766.
95. Thimerosal-containing
96. Andrews N, Miller E, Grant A, et al. Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: a retrospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association. Pediatrics. 2004; 114:584–591.
97. Verstraeten T, Davis RL, DeStefano F, et al. Vaccine safety datalink team. Safety of thimerosalcontaining vaccines: a two-phased study organization 112:1039–1048. health Pediatrics. 2003;
98. Stehr-Green P, Tull P, Stellfeld M, et al. Autism and thimerosal-containing vaccines: lack of consistent evidence for an association. Am J Prev Med. 2003;25(2):101-106.
99. Madsen KM, Lauritsen MB, Pedersen CB, et al. Thimerosal and the occurrence of autism: negative ecological evidence from Danish population-based data. Pediatrics. 2003;112(3 Pt 1):604-606.
100. Heron J, Golding J, ALSPAC Study Team. Thimerosal developmental disorders: a prospective cohort study in the United kingdom does not support a causal association. Pediatrics. 2004;114(3):577- 583. in infants and
101. Nelson KB, Bauman ML. Thimerosal and autism? Pediatrics. 2003; 111:674.
102. Stratton K, Gable A, McCormick MC. Immunization Containing Vaccines and Neurodevelopmental Disorders, National Academy Press, Washington, DC 2001. Review: Thimerosal- Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data. Pediatrics. 2004; 114:793.
103. Taylor LE, Swerdfeger AL, Eslick GD. Vaccines are not associated with autism: an evidence-based meta-analysis of case-control and cohort studies. Vaccine. 2014 17;32(29):3623-3629.
104. Varghese M, Cafferkey M, O’Regan M, et al. with Should disorders receive varicella vaccination? Arch Dis Child. 2011;96:99–100. inherited metabolic
105. Brady MT. Immunization recommendations for children with metabolic disorders: more data would help. Pediatrics. 2006;118:810–813.
106. Kingsley JD, Varman M, Chatterjee A, et al. Immunizations for patients with metabolic disorders. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e460–470.
107. Klein NP, Aukes L, Lee J, et al. Evaluation of immunization rates and safety among children with inborn errors of metabolism. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1139–146.
108. Morgan TM, Schlegel C, Edwards KM, et al. Vaccines are not associated with metabolic events in children with urea cycle disorders. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1147–1153.
109. Wilson K, Potter B, Manuel D, et al. Revisiting the possibility of serious adverse events from the whole cell pertussis vaccine: were metabolically vulnerable children at risk? Med Hypotheses.
110. American Academy of Pediatrics. Children with chronic disease. In: Red book: 2009 report of the committee on infectious diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2009. pp. 86–87.
111. Menni F, Chiarelli G, Sabatini C, et al. Vaccination in children with inborn errors of metabolism. Vaccine. 2012 26;30(50):7161-7164.
112. Siriwardena AN, Asghar Z, Coupland CC. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccination and risk of stroke or transient ischaemic attack-matched case 10;32(12):1354-1361. Vaccine. 2014
113. Emsley HC, Hopkins SJ. Acute ischaemic stroke and infection: recent and emerging concepts. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(4):341–353.
114. Honorat R, Tison C, Sevely A, et al. Influenza A(H1N1)-associated ischemic stroke in a 9- month-old 2012;28(4):368-369. Emerg Care.
115. Urbanek C, Palm F, Grau AJ. Influenza and stroke risk: a key target not to be missed? Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2010;10:122-131.
116. Bell ML, Buchhalter JR. Influenza A-associated stroke in a 4-year-old male. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;31:56-58.
117. Lavallee P, Perchaud V, Gautier-Bertrand M, et al. Associa-tion between influenza vaccination and reduced risk of brain infarction. Stroke. 2002;33(2):513–518.
118. Nichol KL, Nordin J, Mullooly J, et al. Influenza vaccination and reduction in hospitalizations for cardiac disease and stroke among the elderly. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(14):1322–1332.
119. Smeeth L, Thomas SL, Hall AJ, et al. Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke after acute infection 2004;351(25):2611–2618. N EnglJ Med.
120. Grau AJ, Fischer B, Barth C, et al. Influenza vaccination is associated with a reduced risk of stroke. Stroke. 2005;36(7):1501–1506.
121. Vila-Corcoles A, Ochoa-Gondar O, Rodriguez- Blanco T, G et al. Clinical effectiveness of pneumococcal myocardial infarction and stroke in people over 60 years: the CAPAMIS study, one-year follow- up. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:222. acute
122. Hung IF, Leung AY, Chu DW, et al. Prevention of acute myocardial infarction and stroke among elderly persons by dual pneumococcal and influenza vaccination: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51(9):1007–1016.
123. Grau AJ, Marquardt L, Lichy C. The effect of infections and vaccinations on stroke risk. Expert Rev Neurother. 2006;6(2):175-183.
124. Pinol-Ripoll G, de lP I, Santos S, et al. Chronic bronchitis and acute infections as new risk factors for ischemic stroke and the lack of protection offered by the influenza vaccination. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008;26(4):339–347.
125. Clayton TC, Thompson M, Meade TW. Recent respiratory infection and risk of cardiovascular disease: case-control study through a general practice database. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(1):96– 103.
126. Tseng HF, Slezak JM, Quinn VP, et al. Pneumococcal vaccination and risk of acute myocardial infarction and stroke in men. JAMA. 2010;303(17):1699–1706.
127. Nogueira RG, Sheen VL. Images in clinical medicine. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus followed by contralateral hemiparesis. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346:1127.
128. Kumar A, Mollison L. Cerebral infarction following thoracic herpes zoster. Australas J Dermatol. 1993; 34:113–114.
129. Kang J, Ho J, Chen Y, Lin H. Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population- based follow-up study. Stroke. 2009; 40:3443– 3448.
130. Lin HC, Chien CW, Ho JD. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and the risk of stroke: a population- based follow-up study. Neurology. 2010; 74:792–
131. Langan SM, Minassian C, Smeeth L, Thomas SL. Risk of stroke following herpes zoster: a self- controlled case-series study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(11):1497-503.
132. Askalan R, Laughlin S, Mayank S, Chan A, et al. Chickenpox and stroke in childhood: a study of frequency 2001;32(6):1257-1262. causation. Stroke.
133. Wirrell E, Hill MD, Jadavji T, et al. Stroke after varicella vaccination. J Pediatr. 2004;145(6):845
134. Donahue JG, Kieke BA, Yih WK, Berger NR, McCauley JS, Baggs J, Zangwill KM, Baxter R, Eriksen EM, Glanz JM, Hambidge SJ, Klein NP, Lewis EM, Marcy SM, Naleway AL, Nordin JD, Ray P, Belongia EA; Vaccine Safety DataLink Team. Varicella vaccination and ischemic stroke in children: is there an association? Pediatrics. 2009;123(2):e228-234.
135. Taghdiri MM, Nemati H. Infantile spasm: a review article. Iran J Child Neurol. 2014;8(3):1-5.
136. Ohya T, Nagai T, Araki Y, et al; Research Group on Adverse Effects of Vaccination in Patients with Neurological Disorders. A pilot study on the changes in immunity after ACTH therapy in patients with West syndrome. Brain Dev. 2009;31(10):739-743.
137. Schonberger LB, Bregman DJ, Sullivan-Bolyai JZ, et al. Guillain-Barre syndrome following vaccination Immunization Program, United States, 1976- 1977. Am J Epidemiol. 1979;110:105-123.
138. Dieleman J, Romio S, Johansen K, et al. Guillain- Barre syndrome and adjuvanted pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 vaccine: multinational case-control 2011;343:d3908. in Europe. BMJ.
139. McCarthy NL, Gee J, Lin ND, et al. Evaluating the safety of influenza vaccine using a claims- based health system. Vaccine. 2013;31(50):5975- 5982.
140. Kuitwaard K, Bos-Eyssen ME, Blomkwist- Markens PH, et al. Recurrences, vaccinations and long-term symptoms in GBS and CIDP. J Peripher Nerv Syst. 2009;14(4):310-315.
141. Pritchard J, Mukherjee R, Hughes RA. Risk of relapse of Guillain-Barré syndrome or chronic inflammatory polyradiculoneuropathy following immunisation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73(3):348
142. Stowe J, Andrews N, Wise L, Miller E. Investigation of the temporal association of Guillain-Barre syndrome with influenza vaccine and influenza like illness using the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169(3):382-388.
143. Daley MF, Yih WK, Glanz JM, et al. Safety of diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis and inactivated poliovirus (DTaP-IPV) vaccine. Vaccine. 2014;32(25):3019-3024.
144. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). recipients of Menactra meningococcal conjugate vaccine--United States, June-July 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005; 54:1023. among
145. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: Guillain-Barré syndrome among recipients of Menactra meningococcal conjugate vaccine--United States, June 2005-September 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006; 55:1120.
146. Bennetto L, Scolding N. Inflammatory/post- infectious encephalomyelitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75 (Suppl. 1):i22–8. 146. Murthy JM. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Neurol India. 2002;50:238– 243.
147. Koplan JP, Schoenbaum SC, Weinstein MC, et al. Pertussis vaccine – an analysis of benefits, risks and costs. N Engl J Med. 1979;301:906–911.
148. Dodick DW, Silber MH, Noseworthy JH, et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after accidental injection of a hog vaccine: successful treatment with plasmapheresis. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998;73:1193–1195.
149. Tourbah A, Gout O, Liblau R, et al. Encephalitis after hepatitis B vaccination: recurrent neurological implications.
150. 1 Huynh W, Cordato DJ, Kehdi E, et al. Post- vaccination encephalomyelitis: literature review and 2008;15(12):1315-1322. J Clin Neurosci.
151. 1 Bolukbasi O, Ozmenoglu M. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis vaccination. European Neurology. 1999; 41: 231- with tetanus
152. 1 Hamidon BB, Raymond AA. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) presenting with seizures vaccination. Med J Malaysia. 2003;58(5):780- to 782. anti-tetanus toxin
153. 1 Hamano T, Takeda T, Morita H, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome following measles vaccination. J Neurol Sci. 2010;298(1- 2):124-126.
154. 1 Aydin K, Elmas S, Guzes EA. Reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy and Adie's pupil after measles vaccination. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:525–527.
155. 1 Huang WT, Gargiullo PM, Broder KR, et al, for the Vaccine Safety Datalink Team. Lack of association between acellular pertussis vaccine and seizures in early childhood. Pediatrics.
156. 1 Jefferson T, Price D, Demicheli V, Bianco E, for the European Research Program for Improved Vaccine Safety Surveillance (EUSAFEVAC) Project. immunization with MMR: a systematic review. Vaccine. 2003;21:3954–3960. following
157. 1 Moore DL, Le Saux N, Scheifele D, Halperin SA, Members Society/Health Canada Immunization Monitoring Program, Active (IMPACT). Lack of evidence of encephalopathy related to pertussis vaccine: active surveillance by IMPACT, Canada, 1993– 2002. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:568–571.
158. 1 Ray P, Hayward J, Michelson D, et al, Vaccine Safety Datalink Group. Encephalopathy after whole-cell pertussis or measles vaccination. Lack of evidence for a causal association in a retrospective case–control study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25(9):768-773.
159. 1 Shorvon S, Berg A. Pertussis vaccination and epilepsy—an erratic history, new research and the mismatch between science and social policy. Epilepsia. 2008;49:219–225.
160. 1 Knezević-Pogancev M. Risk of vaccination in children with epilepsy Med Pregl. 2010;63(9- 10):696-700.
161. 1 Stübgen JP. Neuromuscular complications of hepatitis A virus infection and vaccines. J Neurol Sci. 2011 15;300(1-2):2-8.
162. 1 Stübgen JP. Neuromuscular disorders associated with Hepatitis B vaccination. J Neurol Sci. 2010 15;292(1-2):1-4.
163. 1 Payne DC, Baggs J, Zerr DM, et al. Protective association between rotavirus vaccination and childhood seizures in the year following vaccination in US children. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(2):173-177. 1