Rota virus infections: prevalence, diagnosis and prevention

Abstract

Background: Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of infant mortality. Various diagnostic methods are available and there is a need to select an ideal one. The use of Vaccines, its efficacy needs to be studied. Methods: A pubmed search, pubchem assay journal of epidemiology and infection, Google search generated results were included for review, out of 900 articles generated 111 articles are studied and were included for review. Conclusion: Molecular typing methods for viruses should aim to provide clinically and biologically useful information about field viruses, particularly with regard to virulence, viral epidemiology, and virus serotype identification. These data may be important for assessing the need for introducing rotavirus surveillance and vaccines into immunization programs in India particularly Tamilnadu.

 

Keywords

• Rota virus, Gastroenteritis, RNA viruses, Vaccines, Rotatrix.

References

1. CDC. Prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis among infants and children: recommendation of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2009; 58:1–25.
2. Gurwith M, Wenman W, Hinde D, Feltham S, Greenberg H. A prospective study of rotavirus infection in infants and young children. J Infect Dis 1981; 144:218–24.
3. Kapikian AZ, Chanock RM. Rotaviruses. In: Straus SE, ed. Fields virology. 3rd ed. Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven; 1996:1657–708.
4. Rodriguez WJ, Kim HW, Brandt CD, et al. Longitudinal study of rotavirus infection and gastroenteritis in families served by a pediatric medical practice: clinical and epidemiologic observations. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987; 6:170–6.
5. Glass RI, Kilgore PE, Holman RC, et al. The epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in the United States: surveillance and estimates of disease burden. J Infect Dis 1996; 174 (suppl 1):S5–S11.
6. Carlson JAK, Middleton PJ, Szymanski MT, Huber J, Petric M. Fatal rotavirus gastroenteritis. An analysis of 21 cases. Am J Dis Child 1978; 132:477– 9.
7. Anderson EJ, Weber SG. Rotavirus infection in adults. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004 Feb; 4(2):91-9.
8. American Academy of Pediatrics. Rotavirus Infections. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003: 534–6.

9. Bernstein DI (March 2009). Rotavirus overview. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 28 (3 Suppl): S50–3. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3181967b ee.
10. ICTV Virus Taxonomy: 2009 Release.
11. Edward J Dubovi; Nigel James MacLachlan (2010). Fenner's Veterinary Virology, Fourth Edition. Boston: Academic Press. p. 288. ISBN 0-12-375158- 6.
12. Giaquinto C, Dominiak-Felden G, Van Damme P, Myint TT, Maldonado YA, Spoulou V, Mast TC, Staat MA. Summary of effectiveness and impact of rotavirus vaccination with the oral pentavalent rotavirus vaccine: a systematic review of the experience in industrialized countries. Human Vaccines 2011;7: 734–48. doi:10.4161/hv.7. 7. 15 5 11.
13. Jiang V, Jiang B, Tate J, Parashar UD, Patel MM. Performance of rotavirus vaccines in developed and developing countries. Human Vaccines 2010;6: 532– 42.
14. Charles MD, Holman RC, Curns AT, Parashar UD, Glass RI, Bresee JS. Hospitalizations associated with rotavirus gastroenteritis in the United States, 1993– 2002 Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25:489-93.
15. LeBaron CW, Lew J, Glass RI, Weber JM, Ruiz- Palacios GM, Group TRS. Annual rotavirus epidemic patterns in North America: Results of a five-year retrospective survey of 88 centers in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. JAMA 1990; 264:983–8.
16. Turcios RM, Curns AT, Holman RC, Pandya-Smith I, LaMonte A, Bresee J, Glass RI. Temporal and geographic trends of rotavirus activity in the United States, 1997-2004. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25:451– 4.
17. Curns AT, Panozzo CA, Tate JE, Payne DC, Patel MM, Cortese MM, Parashar UD. Remarkable postvaccination spatiotemporal changes in US rotavirus activity. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011; 30 (1 Suppl):S54–5
18. Boom JA, Tate JE, Sahni LC, Rench MA, Quaye O, Mijatovic-Rustempasic S, Sustained protection from pentavalent rotavirus vaccination during the second year of life at a large, urban United States pediatric hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29:1133–5.
19. Vesikari T, Karvonen A, Ferrante SA,. Sustained efficacy of the pentavalent rotavirus vaccine, RV5, up to 3.1 years following the last dose of vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 10:957–63.
20. Koopman JS, Turkish VJ, Monto AS, Gouvea V, Srivastava S, Isaacson RE. Patterns and etiology of diarrhea in three clinical settings. Am J Epidemiol 1984;119:114–23.
21. Matson DO, Estes MK. Impact of rotavirus infection at a large pediatric hospital. J Infect Dis 1990; 162:598–604.
22. Dennehy PH, Peter G. Risk factors associated with nosocomial rotavirus infection. Am J Dis Child 1985; 139:935–9.
23. Bennet R, Hedlund KO, Ehrnst A and Eriksson M. Nosocomial gastroenteritis in two infant wards over 26 months. Acta Paediatr 1995; 84:667–71.
24. Fruhwirth M, Heininger U, Ehlken B, et al. International variation in disease burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children with community and nosocomially acquired infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20:784–91.
25. Fischer TK, Bresee JS, Glass RI. Rotavirus vaccines and the prevention of hospital-acquired diarrhea in children. Vaccine 2004; 22 Suppl 1:S49–54.
26. Gleizes O, Desselberger U, Tatochenko V, Rodrigo C, Salman N, Mezner Z, Giaquinto C, Grimprel E. Nosocomial countries: a review of the epidemiology, severity and economic burden of hospital-acquired rotavirus disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25(1 Suppl):S12- 21. infection in European
27. Umesh D. Parashar, MBBS, James P. Alexander, MD, Roger I. Glass, MD Prevention of Rotavirus Gastroenteritis among Infants and Children August 11, 2006 / 55(RR12);1-13.
28. Mİlbak K, Fischer TK, Mikkelsen CS. The estimation of mortality due to rotavirus infections in sub-Saharan Africa. Vaccine. 2000; 15; 19:393-5.
29. E.A.S. Nelsona, J.S. Breseeb, U.D. Parasharb, M. A. Widdowsonb, R.I. Glassc, Rotavirus epidemiology: The Asian Rotavirus Surveillance Network.Vaccine 26 (2008) 3192–3196.
30. www.WHO.com; Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals IVB Document Centre Vaccine research and development documents; © WHO 2012 Last updated: 8 July 2011.
31. Andres A, Donovan SM, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Kuhlenschmidt MS. Isoflavones at concentrations present in soy infant formula inhibit rotavirus infection in vitro.J Nutr. 2007; 137:2068-73.
32. Kiefel MJ, Beisner B, Bennett S, Holmes ID, von Itzstein M. Synthesis and biological evaluation of N- acetylneuraminic acid-based rotavirus inhibitors. J Med Chem. 1996; 15;39:1314-20.
33. Takahashi K, Matsuda M, Ohashi K, Taniguchi K, Nakagomi O, Abe Y, Mori S, Sato N, Okutani K, Shigeta S. Analysis of anti-rotavirus activity of extract from Stevia rebaudiana. Antiviral Res. 2001 ;49(1):15-24.
34. Kwon HJ, Kim HH, Ryu YB, Kim JH, Jeong HJ, Lee SW, Chang JS, Cho KO, Rho MC, Park SJ, Lee WS. In vitro anti-rotavirus activity of polyphenol compounds isolated from the roots of Glycyrrhiza uralensis. Bioorg Med Chem. 2010;1;18:7668-74.
35. Agelis G, Tzioumaki N, Tselios T, Botić T, Cencic A, Komiotis D. Synthesis and molecular modelling of unsaturated analogues with antitumor and antiviral activities. Eur J Med Chem. 2008; 43:1366-75. pyranonucleoside
36. Tsoukala E, Agelis G, Dolinsek J, Botić T, Cencic A, Komiotis D. An efficient synthesis of 3-fluoro-5-thio- xylofuranosyl nucleosides of thymine, uracil, and 5- fluorouracil as potential antitumor or/and antiviral agents. Bioorg Med Chem. 2007;1; 15:3241-7.
37. Mark E Shaneyfelt, Anna D Burke, Joel W Graff, Mark A Jutila, and Michele E Hardy. Natural products that reduce rotavirus infectivity identified by a cell-based moderate-throughput screening assay. Virol J. 2006; 3: 68.
38. Kim DH, Song MJ, Bae EA, Han MJ. Inhibitory effect of herbal medicines on rotavirus infectivity. Biol Pharm Bull. 2000;23:356-8.
39. Hochwald C, Kivela L (). "Rotavirus vaccine, live, oral, tetravalent (RotaShield)". Pediatr. Nurs. 1999;25: 203–4, 207.
40. Ramsay M and Brown D (2000). Desselberger, U.; Gray, James. ed. Rotaviruses: methods and protocols. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-89603- 736-3.
41. Hrdy DB (). Epidemiology of rotaviral infection in adults. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1987;9:461–9. doi:10. 1093/clinids/9.3.461.
42. Schwartz-Cornil I, Benureau Y, Greenberg H, Hendrickson BA, Cohen J. Heterologous protection induced by the inner capsid proteins of rotavirus requires transcytosis of mucosal immunoglobulin. Journal of Virology. 2002 ; 76:8110-7.
43. Santos N, Hoshino Y. Global distribution of rotavirus serotypes/genotypes and its implication for the development and implementation of an effective rotavirus vaccine.Rev Med Virol. 2005; 15:29-56.
44. Hoshino Y, Kapikian AZ.Rotavirus serotypes: classification and importance in epidemiology, immunity, and vaccine development. J Health Popul Nutr. 2000; 18:5-14.
45. Steele AD, Ivanoff B.Rotavirus strains circulating in Africa during 1996-1999: emergence of G9 strains and P[6] strains. Vaccine 2003;17; 21:361-7.
46. Parez N.Rotavirus gastroenteritis: why to back up the development of new vaccines? Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;31:253-69.
47. T. K. Fischer, J. Eugen-Olsen, A. G. Pedersen, K. Molbak, B. Bo¨ttiger,K. Rostgaard, and N. M. Nielsen. Characterization of Rotavirus Strains in a Danish Population: High Frequency of Mixed Infections and Diversity within theVP4 Gene of P[8] Strains. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2005; 43: 1099–1104.
48. Mustafizur Rahman, Sukalyani Banik, Abu S. G. Faruque, Koki Taniguchi,David A. Sack, Marc Van Ranst, Characterization of Human Group C Rotaviruses in Bangladesh. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2005; 43:4460–4465. Azim. Detection and
49. Tung Gia Phan, Pattara Khamrin, Trinh Duy Quang, Shuvra Kanti Dey, Sayaka Takanashi, Shoko Okitsu, Niwat Maneekarn, and Hiroshi Ushijima. Detection and Genetic Characterization of Group A Rotavirus Strains Circulating among Children with Acute Gastroenteritis in Japan. Journal of Virology, May 2007; 81:4645–4653.
50. Sher Bahadur Pun, Toyoko Nakagomi,Jeevan Bahadur Sherchand, Basu Dev Pandey,Luis E. Cuevas,Nigel A. Cunliffe, C.A. Hart, and Osamu Nakagomi. Detection of G12 Human Rotaviruses in Nepal. Emerging Infectious Diseases Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:482-4.
51. Sumit Sharma, Vinod K. Paul, Maharaj K. Bhan, and Genomic Pratima Nontypeable Rotaviruses and Detection of a Rare G8 Strain in Delhi, India. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2009;47:3998-4005. of
52. Takeshi Sanekata,Muzahed Uddin Ahmed,Abdul Kader,Koki Taniguchi, and Nobumichi Kobayashi. Human Group B Rotavirus Infections Cause Severe Diarrhea in Children and Adults in Bangladesh. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2003:2187–2190.
53. Indrani Banerjee, Miren Iturriza-Gomara, Priya Rajendran, Beryl Primrose, Sasirekha Ramani, James J. Gray, David W. Brown, and Gagandeep Kang,Mouna epidemiology of circulating rotaviruses: three-year surveillance in the region of Monastir, Tunisia. BMC Infectious Diseases 2011;11:266. molecular
54. Corinna Pietsch and Uwe G. Liebert. Human Infection with G12 Rotaviruses, Germany. Emerging Infectious Diseases2009;15:1512-5.
55. Mouna Hassine-Zaafrane, Khira Sdiri-Loulizi, Imen Ben Salem, Jérôme Kaplon, Siwar Ayouni,Katia Ambert-Balay, Nabil Sakly, Pierre Pothier and Mahjoub Aouni. The molecular epidemiology of circulating rotaviruses: three-year surveillance in the region of Monastir, Tunisia.BMC Infectious Diseases 2011;11:266.
56. Yi-Pei Lin, Sui-Yuan Chang, Chuan-Liang Kao, Li- Min Huang, Ming-Yi Chung, Jyh-Yuan Yang,Hour- Young Chen, Koki Taniguchi, Keh-Sung Tsai, and Chun-Nan Lee. Molecular Epidemiology of G9 Rotaviruses in Taiwan between 2000 and 2002. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 2006; 44: 3686– 3694.
57. F. O’Halloran, M. Lynch, B. Cryan, H. O’Shea, and S. Fanning. Molecular characterization of rotavirus in Ireland: detection of novel strains circulating in the population. J Clin Microbiol. 2000; 38:3370-4.
58. Sivan Perl MD, Michael Goldman MD, Matitiahu Berkovitch MD and Eran Kozer MD. Characteristics of Rotavirus Gastroenteritis in Hospitalized Children in Israel. IMAJ 2011;13: 274-277.
59. Ayesha Afzal, Parveen Akhtar Tariq, Shehla Choudhry. Rota Virus Gastroenteritis in Children Upto Five years of Age.Journal of Rawalpindi Medical College (JRMC). 2010;14:33-35.
60. Anupam Mukherjee, Shiladitya Chattopadhyay, Parikshit Bagchi,Dipanjan Dutta, Ng. Brajachand Singh, Rashmi Arora, Umesh D. Parashar, Jon R. Gentsch, Mamta Chawla-Sarkar. Surveillance and molecular characterization of rotavirus strains circulating in Manipur, North-Eastern India: Increasing prevalence of emerging G12 strains infection, Genetics and Evolution 10 (2010) 311– 320.
61. A.K. Siddique, Sirajuddin Ahmed, Anwarul Iqbal, Arif Sobhan, Goutam Poddar,Tasnim Azim, D.A. Sack, Mustafizur Rahman, and R.B. Sack. Epidemiology of Rotavirus and Cholera in Children Aged Less Than Five Years in Rural Bangladesh Journal of Health Popul Nutr 2011; 29:1-8.
62. R. van der Heide, M. P. G. Koopmans, N. Shekary, D. J. Houwers,Y. T. H. P. van Duynhoven, and W. H. M. van der Poel. Molecular Characterizations of Human and Animal Group Rotaviruses in the Netherlands. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Feb. 2005;43:669–675.
63. Emily Mulherin, Jill Bryan, Marijke Beltman, Luke O'Grady,Eugene Pidgeon, Lucie Garon, Andrew Lloyd, John Bainbridge,Helen O'Shea, Paul Whyte and Séamus Fanning. Molecular characterization of a bovine-like rotavirus detected from a giraffe. BMC Veterinary Research. 2008; 13;4:46.
64. Patchanee Pipittajan, Songsri Kasempimolporn, Nobuko Ikegami, Kaoru Akatani,Chantapong Wasi, and Epidemiology of Rotaviruses Associated with Pediatric Diarrhea in Bangkok, Thailand. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1991; 29:617-24. Molecular
65. Olga Tcheremenskaia, Gianluca Marucci, Simona De Petris, Franco Maria Ruggeri,Darja Dovecar, Suncanica Ljubin Sternak, Irena Matyasova, Majlinda Kota Dhimolea, Zornitsa Mladenova, Lucia Fiore, and the Rotavirus Study Group. Molecular Epidemiology of Rotavirus in Central and Southeastern Microbiology, 2007;45:2197-204. Journal of Clinical
66. Mathew D. Esona, Annelise Geyer, Krisztian Banyai, Nicola Page, Maryam Aminu, George E. Armah, Jennifer Hull,Duncan A. Steele, Roger I. Glass,and Jon R. Gentsch. Novel Human Rotavirus Genotype G5P[7] from Child with Diarrhea, Cameroon. Emerging Infectious Diseases 15:83-6.
67. C. Pietsch,L. Petersen, L. Patzer, and U. G. Liebert. Molecular Characteristics of German G8P[4] Rotavirus Strain GER1H-09 Suggest that a Genotyping and Sub-classification Update is Required for G8. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2009;47:3569-76.
68. Hiramoto I, Nakagomi T, Nakagomi O.Population- based estimates of the cumulative risk of hospitalization potentially associated with rotavirus diarrhea among children living in two cities in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Japan Journal of Infectious Disease. 2005;58:73-7.
69. Global Rotavirus Information and Surveillance Bulletin. 2011;3:1-6.
70. Birch CJ, Lewis FA, Kennett ML, Homola M, Pritchard H, Gust ID. A study of the prevalence of rotavirus infection in children with gastroenteritis admitted to an infectious diseases hospital. Journal of Medical Virology 1977;1:69–77,
71. Hani O. Ghazi, Mubashir A.Khan, Abdulwahab M.Telmesani, Borhan Idress, Mahomed Farouk Mahomed Rotavirus Infection in Infants and Young Children in Makkah, Saudi Arabia Journal of Pakistan Medical Assosiation .J Pak Med Assoc. 2005; 55:231-4.
72. Anand T, Lakshmi N, Kumar AG Rota Virus Diarrhea among Infants and Children at Tirupati. Indian Pediatr Brief reports 1994;31: 46-48.
73. Gagandeep Kang, Shobhana D. Kelkar, Shoba D. Chitambar, Pratima Ray, and Trailokyanath Naik Epidemiological Profile of Rotaviral Infection in India: Challenges for the 21st Century. J Infect Dis. 2005;192(Suppl 1): S120–S126.
74. Izzo MM, Kirkland PD, Gu X, Lele Y, Gunn AA, House JK. Comparison of three diagnostic techniques for detection of rotavirus and coronavirus in calf faeces in Australia. Aust Vet J. 2012; 90:122-9.
75. Cicirello, Helen G.; Das, Bimal K. ; Gupta, Aarti ; Bhan, M. K. ; Gentsch, Jon R. ; Kumar, Ramesh ; Glass, Roger I.High prevalence of rotavirus infection among neonates born at hospitals in Delhi, India: predisposition of newborns for infection with unusual rotavirus. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 1994;13:720-723.
76. Prevalence and factors associated with rotavirus infection among children admitted with acute diarrhea in Uganda. BMC Pediatrics 2010;10:69 80. Latipov R, Utegenova E, Kuatbayeva A, Kasymbekova K, Abdykarimov S, Juraev R, Ismailov U, Flem E. Epidemiology and burden of rotavirus disease in Central Asia. Int J Infect Dis. 2011; 15:e464-9
77. Elmira T. Flem, Kaliya T. Kasymbekova, Kirsti Vainio Jon Gentsch Sаbirjan T. Abdikarimov, Roger I. Glass Joseph S. Bresee .Rotavirus infection in hospitalized children and estimates of disease burden in Kyrgyzstan (Central Asia), 2005–2007. Vaccine. 2009;27 Suppl 5:F35-9.
78. Vivek Jain, Umesh D. Parashar, Roger I. Glass and Maharaj K. Bhan.Epidemiology of rotavirus in India. Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 2001;68:855-862.
79. Broor S, Ghosh D, Mathur P.Molecular epidemiology of rotaviruses in India. Indian J Med Res. 2003;118:59-67.
80. Yassin MA, Kirby A, Mengistu AA, Arbide I, Dove W, Beyer M, Cunliffe NA, Cuevas LE.Unusual norovirus and rotavirus genotypes in Ethiopia. Paediatr Int Child Health. 2012;32:51-5.
81. S.D. Chitambar, A. Lahon, V.S. Tatte, N.H. Maniya, G.U. Tambe, K.I. Khatri, H.S. Desai, M.R. Ugare, S.V. Kulkarni, and A.P. Waghmare. Occurrence of group B rotavirus infections in the outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis from western India. Indian J Med Res. 2011; 134: 399–400.
82. Ahmed S, Hussain M, Akhter S, Islam T, Ahmed SU, Kabir ML. Mymensingh .Genotypes of rotavirus diarrhoea in a children hospital of bangladesh. Med J. 2012; 21:497-502.
83. Chen KT, Fan SF, Tang RB, Huang YF, Lee PI, Chen PY, Tang CW, Chen HC. Hospital-based study of the economic burden associated with rotavirus diarrhea in Taiwan. Vaccine. 2007;22: 4266–4272.
84. Jacqueline E, Chitambar S, Esposito DH, Sarkar R, Ramani Gladstone Sowmyanarayanan TV, Gandhe S, Arora R, Parashar UD, Kang G.Disease and economic burden of rotavirus diarrhoea in India. Vaccine.2009;20: F18– F24. S, Raghava MV,
85. Nelson EA, Bresee JS, Parashar UD, Widdowson MA, Glass RI. Asian Rotavirus Surveillance Network.Rotavirus Rotavirus Surveillance Network. Vaccine 2008;26: 3192–3196. The Asian
86. Saravanan P, Ananthan S, Ananthasubramanian M. Rotavirus infection among infants and young children in chennai, south india. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2004:22:212-221.
87. Vivek Jain , Das BK, Bhan MK, Glass RI, Gentsch JR; Indian Strain Surveillance Collaborating Laboratories.Great Diversity of Group A Rotavirus Strains and High Prevalence of Mixed Rotavirus Infections in India., J. Clin. Microbiol. 2001;39:3524- 3529.
88. Saiada F, Rahman HN, Moni S, Karim MM, Pourkarim MR, Azim T, Rahman M. Clinical presentation and molecular characterization of group B rotaviruses in diarrhoea patients in Bangladesh. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60:529-536.
89. Lahon A, Maniya NH, Tambe GU, Chinchole PR, Purwar S, Jacob G, Chitambar SD. Group B rotavirus infection in patients with acute gastroenteritis from India: 1994–1995 and 2004–2010. Epidemiol Infec. 2013;141:969-75.
90. Chia Ling Wu , Yang YC, Huang LM, Chen KT.Cost-effectiveness vaccination in Taiwan. Vaccine. 2009;27:1492–1499. of childhood rotavirus
91. Tate Jacqueline E, Burton AH, Boschi-Pinto C, Steele AD, Duque J, Parashar UD; WHO-coordinated Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network2008 estimate of worldwide rotavirus-associated mortality in children younger than 5 years before the introduction of universal rotavirus vaccination programmes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancent Infectious Disease. 2012;12:136–141.
92. Granados-García V, Velázquez FR, Salmerón J, Homedes N, Salinas-Escudero G, Morales-Cisneros G.Burden of disease and costs of treating rotavirus diarrhea in Mexican children for the period 2001– 2006. Vaccine 2011;29:6712–6719.
93. O'Ryan M. Rotarix (RIX4414): an oral human rotavirus vaccine. Expert review of vaccines 2007;6 :11–9
94. FDA's MedWatch Safety Alerts: May 2010.
95. RotaTeq Is Approved In Canada (Press release). Merck Frosst Canada. 2006-08-23. Retrieved 2008- 02-29.
96. McCarthy M. Project seeks to fast track rotavirus vaccine. Lancet 2003;15;361(9357):582.
97. Rheingans RD, Antil L, Dreibelbis R, Podewils LJ, Bresee JS, Parashar UD. Economic costs of rotavirus gastroenteritis and cost-effectiveness of vaccination in developing countries. J Infect Dis. 2009;1;200 Suppl 1:S16-27. doi: 10.1086/605026
98. World Health Organization. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 2009;51-52: 533–540.
99. Soares-Weiser K, Maclehose H, Bergman H, et al. Vaccines for preventing rotavirus diarrhoea: vaccines in use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 15;2:CD008521.
100. Ward RL, Clark HF, Offit PA.Influence of potential protective mechanisms on the development of live rotavirus vaccines. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 2010;202 (Suppl): S72–9. doi:10.1086/653549.
101. World Health Organization Global Immunization Data, 3 May 2012.
102. Widdowson MA, Steele D, Vojdani J, Wecker J, Parashar determining the need and measuring the impact of rotavirus vaccines. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 2009;200 (Suppl 1): S1–8. rotavirus surveillance:
103. Giaquinto C, Dominiak-Felden G, Van Damme P, Myint TT, Maldonado YA, Spoulou V, Mast TC, Staat MA Summary of effectiveness and impact of rotavirus vaccination with the oral pentavalent rotavirus vaccine: a systematic review of the experience in industrialized countries. Human Vaccines 2011;7: 734–48.
104. Richardson V, Hernandez-Pichardo J, Quintanar- Solares M, et al. (January). Effect of rotavirus vaccination on death from childhood diarrhea in Mexico. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010;362:299–305.
105. Patel M, Pedreira C, De Oliveira LH, et al. Association between pentavalent rotavirus vaccine and severe rotavirus diarrhea among children in Nicaragua. JAMA 2009;301:2243–51.
106. Patel MM, Steele D, Gentsch JR, Wecker J, Glass RI, Parashar UD. Real-world impact of rotavirus vaccination. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2011;30 :(1 Suppl): S1–5.
107. UK Department of Health:New vaccine to help protect babies against rotavirus. Retrieved on 10 November, 2012.