Sömürülen Liberya’da Çekişmeler

Öz

Bu makale Liberya’ya yerleşen özgür siyahi Amerikalı köleler ile Afrikalı ev sahipleri arasındaki acımasız ilişkilerin gelişimini incelemektedir. Siyahi kölelerin üstünlük kompleksi, onların ev sahipleri hakkında aşağılayıcı görüşlere sahip olmasına yol açarken, başlangıçta geri dönenleri memnuniyetle karşılayan ev sahipleri, kölelerin küstah torunları oldukları için onlardan nefret ediyordu. Yerli halk tarafından, yerleşimci sınıfa peş peşe yapılan kural çiğnemeler, ayrışmacı bir duruma yol açmıştı. Esasen, acı veren deneyimleri arazi mülkiyeti ve eşitsizliği etrafında dönüyordu. Terk edilmişliğe rağmen, Afrika Birliği Örgütü, sömürge Afrika’nın diğer bölgelerinde kınadıklarıyla aynı olan insan hakları ihlallerini göz ardı etti. Bununla birlikte, boğuştukları trajedilere rağmen, filizlenmekte olan diğer potansiyel olarak uçucu durumları kırpmak için yeterli tedbirler mevcut değildi. Sonuç olarak, kaleme aldığım yazı, olguların nitel olarak doğrulanması yoluyla, finans, eğitim, üstünlük kompleksi, açgözlülük, hırs ve sorunları Afrikalı siyasetçilerin Liberya durumunu nasıl karmaşık hale getirdiğini vurgulamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Sözleşmeli Emek,Ayrımcılık yapma,Liberya,Yerleşimci Sömürgeciliği

Acrimony in Colonial Liberia

Abstract

This article addresses the development of the acrimonious relationships between freed Black American slaves who settled in Liberia, and their African hosts. The superiority complex of the former made them have derogatory views about their hosts, while the latter, who initially welcomed the repatriates, loathed them for being arrogant descendants of slaves. The sequential transgressions committed against the indigenous people, by the settler class, degenerated to an apartheid situation. Principally, their agonizing experiences revolved around land ownership and inequity. Despite the desolation, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) ignored human rights abuses that were identical with what it denounced in other parts of colonial Africa. However, despite the tragedies they had grappled with, enough precautionary measures are not in place to nip other potentially volatile situations in the bud. In conclusion, the write-up, through qualitative verification of facts, highlighted how problems of finance, education, superiority complex, greed and avarice and duplicity of African politicians complicated the Liberian situation.

Keywords

• Contract Labour,Discrimination,Liberia,Settler Colonialism

References

1. [1] Ajayi, Jacob .F. Ade. & Crowder, M. (Eds.) (1974) History of West Africa. (2) Essex: Longman Group Ltd.
2. [2] American Geographical Society (1908) Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 40 (1), 21-22. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/197994
3. [3] American Society of International Law (1911) Agreement Between the United Kingdom and Liberia Respecting the Navigation of the Manoh River. The American Journal of International Law, Supplement: Official Documents 7 (3), 177-180. [4] American Society of International Law (1911) Convention Between the United Kingdom and Liberia Respecting the Boundary Between Sierra Leone and Liberia. The American Journal of International Law, Supplement: Official Documents 5 (4) 279-281. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2212433
4. [5] Available at: www.scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/lsj/article/view File/4106/3733.
5. [6] Beyan, J. Amos. (1997) The Antitheses of Liberia Independence in Historical Perspective. Liberian Studies Journal, XXII (1), 3-7. Available at: http://www.scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.
6. [7] Chanaiwa, David. General History of Africa VIII. Mazuri A. A. (Ed.) (1993) Africa since 1935. UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. Available at: www.unesco.org/.../general-history-of-africa/.../volume-viii-afr...
7. [8] Constitution of the Republic of Liberia(1847)The Declaration of Independence and The Constitution of the Republic of Liberia as amended through May, 1955. Available at: www.onliberia.org/.../Li...
8. [9] Curtin, D. Philip. (1974) The Black Experience of Colonialism and Imperialism. Reviewed Works: Daedalus, Slavery, Colonialism, and Racism.103 (2), 17-29 Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20024202

9. [10] Department of Labour, United States of America. List Required by the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005 Updated September 26, 2012. Available at: www.dol.gov/.../pdf/TVPRA2011-20... [11] Diercks, Tegan. S. K. (2011) Congo’s Intractable Conflict: How Lessons from Mozambique and Liberia Can Inform a Way Forward. M.A. Thesis, Georgetown University. Available at: https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/.../diercksTegan.pdf
10. [12] Dillon, Etrenda Christine. (1980) The Role of Education in the Rise and Fall of Americo-Liberians in Liberia, West Africa. Dissertation, Georgia State University, (2008). Available at: http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/eps_diss/18
11. [13] Du bois, D. Victor. (1968) The Trial of Henry Fahnbulleh Parts 1-4. West Africa Series, (Liberia). XI, (3)
12. [14] Duke Law Journal (1963) South West Africa Cases: Preliminary Cases. pp. 310-314 Available at: scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1851&context=dlj [15] Dunn-Marcos, Konia T. Kollehlon, Bernard Ngovo, and Emily Russ (2005) Liberia. An introduction to their History and Culture. Cultural Orientation Resource Centre. Centre for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C. Available at: https://www.ictj.org/.../ICTJ-L...
13. [16] Eltis David. and Stanley L. Engerman. (2000) The importance of the Slave Trade to Industrializing Britain. The Journal of Economic History, 60 (1), 123-144. Available at: www.jstor.org/stable/2566799
14. [17] Feick, Greer. (2011) “Red, White and Blue Rubber: American Involvement in the Liberian Slavery Crisis, 1928-1934” Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University. Available at: http://www.history.columbia.edu/undergraduate/
15. [18] Foster, Dulce. et al. (2009) A House with Two Rooms: Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Liberia Diaspora Project, Book1. DRI Press. Available at: http://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/
16. [19] Freeman, R. M. (1968) The Role of The United States in the Development of Liberia. M.A. Thesis, University of Arizona. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10150/318043.
17. [20] Gathii James Thuo (2007) Imperialism, Colonialism, and International Law. Buffalo Law Review, 54, (4) 1012-1066. Available at: http://www.lawecommons.luc.edu/
18. [21] Genovese, D, Eugene and Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth. (1979) The Slave Economics in Political Perspective. The Journal of American History, (66), (1) 7-23. Available at: www.jstor.org/stable/1894671
19. [22] Gershoni, Yekutiel. (1992) The Formation of Liberia's Boundaries Part I: Agreements. Liberian Studies Journal, XVII, (1). Available at: https://www.hufind.huji.ac.il/
20. [23] Glyn, Stone. The Foreign Office and Forced Labour in Portuguese West Africa, 1894-1914. Available at: www.uwe.ac.uk
21. [24] Gross, A. Earnest. (1966) The South West Africa Case: What Happened? Foreign Affairs (Council on Foreign Relations publication), 45 (1), 36-48. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20039211
22. [25] Gueye, M’baye and Boahen, Albert. Adu. (Ed.) (1985) General History of Africa VII Africa Under Colonial Domination 1800 History of Africa. UNESCO. Available at: http://www.unesdoc.unesco.org/images
23. [26] Guseh, S. James. (1997) LIBERIA: A Country in Search of Identity and Unity. Liberian Studies Journal, XXII (1) 37-44.
24. [27] Hyre, James. (2004) The United Kingdom Declaration of Independence: Creating a Supreme Court to Secure Individual Rights Under Human Rights Act of 1998. Fordham Law Review, 73 (1) (14). Available at: http://www.ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol73/iss1/14
25. [28] International Labour Office (1929) Forced Labour Report And Draft Questionnaire Item III on the Agenda International Labour office, XIX, (5). Geneva. Available at: www.staging.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/1929/29B09_10_engl.pdf
26. [29] International Labour Office. Report of the Commission Of Inquiry (1963) appointed under article 26 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization to examine the complaint filed by the Government of Portugal concerning the Observance by the Government of Liberia of the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (29) Official Bulletin XLVI, (2) Supplement II. Available at: www.staging.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/1929/29B09_10_engl.pdf
27. [30] International Labour Office. Report of the Commission Of Inquiry (1962) appointed under article 26 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization to examine the complaint filed by the Government of Ghana concerning the observance by the Government of Portugal of the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (105) Official Bulletin XLV (2), Supplement II. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/P/09604/09604%281962-45-2-Suppl.2%29.pdf
28. [31] Johnson, Philip. James. (2004) “Seasons in Hell: Charles Johnson and the 1930 Liberia Labour Crisis” Ph.D. Diss., Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Available at: http://www.etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/
29. [32] Jones, H. Abeodu. Bowen. (1997) The Africanisation of The Republic of Liberia, Liberian Studies Journal, XXII (1), 8-22. [33] Jordan, D. Winthrop. (1977) White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro. 1550-1 The Apartheid Era 812: Norton. New York. [34] Kieh, Klay. George. Jr. (2010) Post-Conflict Peace building in Liberia: An Assessment of the Liberal Model. Liberian Studies Journal, 35, (1) 1-27. Available at: http://www.scholarworks.iu.edu.
30. [35] Knight, Rachael. (2012) Protecting Community Lands and Resources Evidence from Liberia, Mozambique and Uganda. Namati and International Development Law Organization (IDLO). Available at: www.nnnamati.org [Assessed on 16 May 2017]
31. [36] Koffa, David. (2015) Child Labour & Liberia’s Rubber Industry: An Empirical Study of the Effects of Liberia’s Rubber Commodity Exports on Child Labour & Education Attainment. Topics in Development Economics Dartmouth College. Available at: www.slideshare.net/.../economics-major-cumulative-project-47007042.
32. [37] Kuhn, G. Gary. (1975) Liberia Contract Labour in Panama. Liberian Studies Journal, VI (1), 43-52.
33. [38] Landis, S. Elizabeth. (1964) South West Africa in the International Court Act II Scene 1. Cornell Law Review, (49), 179. Available: at www.scholarship.law.cornell.edu/.../view content.
34. [39] Laura, Elizabeth. West. (2012) The Negro Experiment: Black Modernity and Liberia, 1883-1910, M.A. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University2012. Available at: www.scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd
35. [40] Lodge, Tom., (2011) Resistance and Reforms, 1973-1994. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/indexes/cambridge_histories
36. [41] Makain, S. Jeffery.., & Rev. Foh. S. (2009) Social Dimensions of Large-Scale Land Acquisition Rights in Liberia (1900-2009): Challenges and Prospects for Traditional Settlers. Liberian Studies, 34 (1), 1-40. Available at: www.scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/lsj/article/.../3787%23page=69.
37. [42] Manson, S. David. (2011) A concise history of modern Europe: liberty, equality, solidarity. 2ed. Lanham. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Available at: http://www.wiki.zirve.edu.tr/groups
38. [43] Martin, J. Jane. (1987) Seaton Samuel W. Liberian Citizen. Liberian Studies Journal XII (2), 1, 99-218.
39. [44] Martino, Enrique. (2012). Clandestine Recruitment Networks in the Bight of Biafra: Fernando Po’s Answer to the Labour Question, 1926 1945, Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis IRSH 57. (Special Issue), 39–72.
40. [45] Meredith, Martin (1980). End of the Americo-Liberian Aristocracy. From The Fate of Africa: A History of 50 Years of Independence. Public Affairs, 545-548. www.https://faroutliers.wordpress.com/2008/.../end-of-the-americo-liberian-aristocracy-198...
41. [46] Oldfield, J.R. (1992) The London Committee and Mobilization of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade. The Historical Journal, 35 (2), 331-343. Available at: www.jstor.org/stable/2639671.
42. [47] Parkins, Daniel. (2019) "Colonialism, Post colonialism, and the Drive for Social Justice: A Historical Analysis of Identity Based Conflicts in the First Republic of Liberia”. Capstone Collection. 3156. Available at: https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/3156
43. [48] Patton, Adell. (2005) Liberia and Containment Policy against Colonial Take-Over: Public Health and Sanitation Reform, 1912-1953. Liberian Studies Journal, XXX (2), 40-65.
44. [49] Ranard, A. Donald. (Ed.) Liberians. An Introduction to their History and Culture. Centre for Applied Linguistics. Washington, D.C. Available at: https://www.hplct.org/assets/.../files/Liberians.pdf
45. [50] Reginald, Austin. (1975) Racism and Apartheid in Southern Africa, Rhodesia A book of data. Paris, UNESCO press. Available on
46. [51] https://www.unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000161/016163eo.pdf
47. [52] Republic of Liberia Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report. Volume II. Consolidated Final Report. Available at: www.trcofliberia.org/reports/final-report
48. [53] Reviewed Works. (1931) The 1930 Enquiry Commission to Liberia. Journal of Royal African Society 30 (120), 277-290.
49. [54] Rodney, Walter. (2012) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Cape town. .Pambazuka Press, an imprint of Fahamu. Available at: https://howandwhatwelearn.wordpress.com/.../walter-rodneys-how-europe-underdevel...
50. [55] Rossiter, Edward. (1993) The Abolition of Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Its Consequences for Africa. African-American History. OAH Magazine of History 7(4), 45-54.
51. [56] Ruetten, Felicitas. (2009) Black America's Perceptions of Africa in the 1920s and 1930s. M.A. Thesis, Seton Hall University. Available at: www.scholarship.shu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
52. [57] Sackett, Marjie. Forced Child Labour and Cocoa Production in West Africa. Topical Research Digest: Human Rights and Contemporary Slavery. Human Rights & Human Welfare Available at: www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/.../slavery/africa.pdf
53. [58] Save My Future Foundation (2008) THE HEAVY LOAD A Demand for Fundamental Changes at the Bridgestone/Firestone Rubber Plantation in Liberia. The Save My Future Foundation. Available at: www.labourrights.org/sites/default/files/.../The%20Heavy%20Load.pdf
54. [59] Sawyer, Amos. (1992) The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia: Tragedy and Challenge. San Francisco. Institute for Contemporary Studies. Available at: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABM803.pdf
55. [60] Shick, W Tom. (1971) A Quantitative Analysis of Liberian Colonization from 1820 to 1843 with Special Reference to Mortality. Journal of African History, 12 (1), 45-59.
56. [61] Smyke J. Raymond. (2005) An Indigenous Liberian’s Quest for the Presidency: Momolu Massaquoi and the 1931 Election. Liberian Studies Journal, XXX (2), 1-28.
57. [62] Sundiata, K. Ibrahim. (1975) The Rise And Decline of Kru Power: Fernando Po In The Nineteenth Century. Liberian Studies Journal, (VI) 1, 25-41. Available at: http://www.scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/lsj/article/viewFile/4106/3733
58. [63] Taleb Baligh Ben Ahmed Ben (2014) Accounts of Settler Colonialism: A comparative Study of the Dakota and Palestines’ Plight. M.A.Thesis University of Nebraska.
59. [64] UNESCO (1979) The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century Reports and papers of the meeting of experts organized by Unesco at Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 31 January to 4 February 1978, Paris. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Available at: http://www.unesdoc.unesco.org/images
60. [65] United Nations Publication (1975) United Nations Department of Political Affairs. Issues on Southern Rhodesia II. (5), pp. 1-25. Available at: www.un.org/en/decolonization/publication.
61. [66] Vera, M. Green. (1969) “Aspects of Interethnic Integration in Aruba, Netherlands Antilles.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Arizona. Available at: https://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/
62. [67] Verite “Rubber Production In Liberia: An Exploratory Assessment of Living and Working Conditions, with Attention to Forced Labour: Available at: http://www.verite.org/sites/default/files/images
63. [68] Watts, C.P. (2012) Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence An International History. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, New York.
64. [69] Weissbrodt, David. & Georgina Mahony. (1986) “International Legal Action Against Apartheid,” Law & Ineq. 4, (19) 86: 485. Available at: http://scholarship.law.umn.edu/faculty_articles/361.
65. [70] Wily, Liz A. (2007) “So Who Owns the Forest” An investigation into forest ownership and customary land rights in Liberia” The Sustainable Development Institute. Available at: www.rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/doc_102.pdf
66. [71] World Bank Report (2008) Liberia Insecurity of Land Tenure, Land Law and Land Registration in Liberia. Environmental and Natural Resources (AFTEN) Africa Region No. 46134-LR. Available at: www.documents.worldbank.org