"Küçülen Şehirler" de Kentsel Yenileme için Yapılan Çalışmalar: Liverpool Örneği

Abstract

Kentlerin yüzyıllar boyunca fiziksel, ekonomik, sosyo-ekonomik, demografik, sosyal ve kültürel olarak büyüyüp gelişmeleri doğal bir süreç olarak kabul edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte kentsel büyümenin çeşitli etkenlerden kaynaklanan tersi bir olgunun var olduğunu da görmekteyiz. ‘Kentsel Küçülme’ terimiyle adlandırılan bu olgu aslında yeni olmayıp çok boyutlu bir süreç olması nedeniyle kentlerin tarih boyunca gelişimindeki deneyimler sonucu bu yüzyılda belirginlik kazanmıştır. Şikago Okulundan beri şehirlerin ve şehir merkezlerinin gelişmesi ve küçülmesi ile oluşan kentsel dönüşümün bir yaşam döngüsünden kaynaklandığı doğal bir süreç olarak kabul edilmektedir. Özellikle ABD’ de bunun nedenleri ve oluşumlarını analiz eden çalışmalar bazı kentlerin kaçınılmaz bir küçülme içinde olduğunu göstermektedir. Çok boyutlu bir süreç olan şehirlerin küçülmesinin nedenlerine yönelik farklı görüşler ortaya atılmakla birlikte görüşlerin hem fikir olduğu iki temel faktör, demografik yapıdaki değişim ve endüstriyel dönüşüm olarak belirmektedir. Nüfusun banliyölere yerleşmesi ile kent merkezlerinde yer alan konut yerleşimlerinin boşalması sonucu canlılığını yitirmiş alanlar boşluk olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Kent merkezlerinde boşluklar olarak beliren büyük alanların benzerleri, teknolojik gelişmeler ve çevresel faktörlerin etkileşimiyle gelişen endüstriyel dönüşüm sonucunda meydana gelmektedir. Avrupa kentleri dünyanın diğer kıtalarında yer alan kentlere oranla ‘küçülme’ süreçlerini önceden deneyimlemiş ve küçülmeye karşı çözüm önerilerini geliştirme çalışmalarına daha önce başlamıştır. Bu çalışmada küçülen şehirlerde etken olan önemli iki faktörün fiziksel ve mekânsal yansıması olan ‘banliyöleşme’ ve ‘endüstriyel dönüşüm’ Liverpool kenti üzerinden ele alınmıştır. Liverpool’un küçülen şehirler kapsamından çıkmasını sağlayan ekonomik gelişim ve kentsel dönüşüm süreci incelenmiş ve yeniden canlandırılmasında rol oynayan parametreler ayrıntılı biçimde ortaya konulmuş olup bu tür kentler için model olabileceği varsayılmıştır.

Keywords

• küçülen şehirler
• Liverpool
• kentsel yenileme
• banliyöleşme
• endüstriyel dönüşüm

Efforts for Urban Renewal in "Shrinking Cities" : The Case of Liverpool

Abstract

The physical, economic, socio-economic, demographic, social and cultural growth and development of cities for centuries has been accepted as a natural process. However, we also see that there is a reverse phenomenon of urban growth, which is caused by various factors. This phenomenon, which is named as 'Urban Shrinkage', is not new and appears as a multidimensional process. The phenomenon called 'Shrinking Cities' has been experienced throughout history in the development process of cities but has gained prominence in this century. Since the Chicago School, it has been accepted as a natural process that the urban transformation that occurs with the development and shrinkage of cities and city centers stems from a life cycle. Studies analyzing the causes and occurrences of this, especially in the USA, show that some cities are in an inevitable shrinkage. Different views have been put forward regarding the reasons for the shrinking of cities, which is a multidimensional process. The two main factors with which the views are agreed are the change in the demographic structure and the industrial transformation. The settlement of the population in the suburbs has caused the emptying of the residential settlements in the city centers and thus the areas that have lost their vitality to appear as voids. Like large areas that appear as gaps in city centers, they occur because of industrial transformation due to reasons such as technological developments and environmental factors. European cities have already experienced the 'shrinkage' processes compared to the cities in the world and have already started working on developing solution proposals. In this study, 'suburbanization' and 'industrial transformation', which are the physical and spatial reflections of two factors that are effective in shrinking cities, are discussed over the city of Liverpool. The economic development and urban transformation process that enabled Liverpool to get out of the scope of shrinking cities were examined and the parameters that played a role in its renewal were presented in detail.

Keywords

• shrinking cities
• Liverpool
• urban renewal
• suburbanisation
• industrial transformation

References

1. Amin, A., & Thrift, N. (Ed.). (1995). Globalization Institutions and Regional Development In Europe. Oxford University Press.
2. Audirac, I., & Cunningham-sabot, E. (2012). Declining Suburbs in Europe and Latin America. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, July 2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01093.x
3. Beauregard, R. A. (2003). Voices Of Decline The Postwar Fate of U.S. Cities. Routledge.
4. Biddulph, M. (2011). Urban design, regeneration and the entrepreneurial city. Progress in Planning, 76(2), 63–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2011.08.001
5. Biswas, A. K., Tortajada, C., & Stavenhagen, M. (2018). nedenler. https://theconversation.com/managing-shrinking-cities-in-an-expanding-world-91448
6. Bontje, M. (2004). Facing the Challenge of Shrinking Cities in East Germany : The Case of Leipzig. GeoJournal, 61(June 2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-005-0843-2
7. Bradbury, K. L., Downs, A., & Small, K. A. (1982). Urban Decline and the Future of American Cities. Brookings Institution Press.
8. Buzar, S., Ogden, P., Hall, R., Haase, A., & Kabisch, S. (2007). Splintering Urban Populations : Emergent Landscapes of Reurbanisation in Four European Cities. Urban Studies, 44(4), 651–677. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980601185544

9. Cunningham, I., & Platt, L. (2019). Bidding for UK City of Culture: Challenges of Delivering a Bottom-Up Approach “In Place” For a Top-Down Strategy Led Scheme. Journal of Place Management and Development, 12(3), 314–325.
10. Dale, B. (2002). AN INSTITUTIONALIST APPROACH TO LOCAL RESTRUCTURING. Europan Urban and Regional Studies, 9(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/096977640200900101
11. Downs, A. (1999). Some realities about sprawl and urban decline. August. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1999.9521356
12. Ducom, E., & Yokohari, M. (2006). L’involution démographique et urbaine dans l’ére tokyite - Le déclin de la ville nouvelle de Tama. Les Annales de la recherche urbaine: recherches et débats, 23–28.
13. Eren, F. (2014). The Urban Regeneration Experience of the United Kingdom: Lessons for Turkey (Sayı 7; Center for Strategic Research and Analysis).
14. Fageir, M., Borsi, K., & Porter, N. (2015). Regenerating Liverpool Pier Head Waterfront: the Role of Urban Design. Journal of City, Culture and Architecture, 1(1), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.15340/2148193811851
15. Fishman, R. (1946). Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise And Fall Of Suburbia. Basic Books, Inc.
16. Florentin, D., Fol, S., & Roth, H. (2009). La “Stadtschrumpfung” ou “rétrécissement urbain” en Allemagne: un champ de recherche émergent. Europen Journal of Geography. https://doi.org/10.4000/cybergeo.22123
17. Friedrichs, J. (1993). A Theory of Urban Decline: Economy, Demography and Political Elites. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420989320080851
18. Jackson, K. T. (1985). Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. Oxford Univercity Press.
19. Jacobs, M. (1988). Margaret Thatcher and the Inner Cities. Economic and Political Weekly, 23(38), 1942–1944. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4379049
20. Kocabaş, A. (2012). Yeşil Sürdürülebilir Kentsel Dönüşüm: Kavramsal Çerçeve ve Uygulama Araçları.
21. Lang, R. E. (2000). Did neighborhood life‐cycle theory cause urban decline? Housing Policy Debate, 11(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2000.9521358
22. Lang, T. (2016). Insights in the British Debate about Urban Decline and Urban Regeneration * (Sayı November 2005). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17303.98726
23. Maliene, V., Wignall, L., & Malys, N. (2012). Brownfield regeneration: Waterfront site developments in Liverpool and Cologne. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 20(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.3846/16486897.2012.659030
24. Meng, X., Jiang, Z., Wang, X., & Long, Y. (2021). Shrinking cities on the globe : Evidence from LandScan. Economy and Space, 53(6), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X211006118
25. Metzger, J. T. (2010). Planned abandonment : The neighborhood life ‐ cycle theory and national urban policy. Housing Policy Debate, 7–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2000.9521359
26. Misselwitz, P. (2004). Manchester/ Liverpool Studies Part 1. Manchester - Liverpool. Studies Part I, 49(March), 1–186. http://shrinkingcities.com/fileadmin/shrink/downloads/pdfs/II.1_Studies1.pdf#page=32
27. Moraes, S. T. (2013). Inequality and Urban Shrinkage: A Close Relationship in Brazil. Içinde Shrinking Cities. Routledge.
28. Mumford, L. (1961). The City in History: Its origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects. Mariner Books.
29. Murden, J. (2006). City of Change and Challenge: Liverpool since 1945. Içinde J. Belchem (Ed.), Liverpool 800: Culture, Character and History. Liverpool University Press.
30. Nurse, A. (2017). City Centre Regeneration to Drive Economic Competitiveness ? The Case Study of Liverpool One. LHI Journal, 8, 91–102.
31. Ogden, P. E., & Hall, R. (2000). Households, Reurbanisation and the Rise of Living Alone in the Principal French Cities, 1975-90. Urban Studies, 37(2), 367–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098002230
32. Oswalt, P. (y.y.). Shrinking Cities. http://www.shrinkingcities.com/globaler_kontext.0.html?&L=1%3E,Accessed January 20
33. Oswalt, P. (Ed.). (2005). Shrinking Cities - Volume 1: International Research.
34. Pallagst, K. M. (2010). Shrinking cities – challenges for planning in an international context. PNDonline, February.
35. Park, R. E., Burgess, E. W., & McKenzie, R. D. (1967). The City. The Univercity of Chicago Press.
36. Rawding, C. (2008). Liverpool : Capital of Culture. Teaching Geography.
37. Rink, D., Haase, A., Grossmann, K., Couch, C., & Cocks, M. (2012). From long-term shrinkage to re-growth? the urban development trajectories of Liverpool and Leipzig. Built Environment, 38(2), 162–178. https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.38.2.162
38. Roberts, P., & Sykes, H. (2008). Urban regeneration: A handbook. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446219980
39. Rybcznski, W., & Linneman, P. D. (1999). How To Save Our Shrinking Cities. Public Interest, 135, 30–44.
40. Sardon, J. (2004). Recent Demographic Trends in the Developed Countries. Population, 59(2), 263–314. https://doi.org/10.3917/popu.402.0305
41. Scott, A. J., & Storper, M. (2003). Regions , Globalization , Development. Regional Studies, 37(6&7), 579–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340032000108697
42. Spengler, O. (2006). The Decline of the West. Vintage.
43. Squires, G. D., & Kubrin, C. E. (2005). Privileged Places : Race , Uneven Development and the Geography of Opportunity in Urban America. Urban Studies, 42(1), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098042000309694
44. SRF. (2000). https://archello.com/story/4603/attachments/photos-videos/5
45. Steinbeck, J. (1967). Gazap Üzümleri. İletişim Yayınları.
46. Trubek, A. (2018). Voices from the Rust Belt.
47. Uysal, Ü. E. (2014). Büyük Etkinlikler: Kente ve Kent Mekânına Etkileri. İ.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 163–179. https://www.academia.edu/20263137/Büyük_Etkinlikler_Kente_ve_Kent_Mekanına_Etkileri
48. Van de Kaa, D. J. (1987). Europe’s Second Demographic Transition. Population Bulletin, 42(1).
49. Weaver, R. C. (1975). The Suburbanization of America.
50. Wiechmann, T. (2006). Coping with City Shrinkage: A Global Issue. Schader Stiftung. https://www.schader-stiftung.de/individuelle-auswahl/fokus/konversion/artikel/coping-with-city-shrinkage-a-global-issue
51. Wilks-Heeg, S. the C. in C. P. (2003). From World City to Priah City? Liverpool and the Global Economy, 1850-2000. Içinde R. Munck (Ed.), Reinventing the City?Liverpool in Comparative Perspective (1. baskı, ss. 36–52). Liverpool University Press. https://doi.org/10.5949/liverpool/9780853237976.003.0003
52. Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a Way of Life A. The American Journal of Sociology, 44(1), 1–24.
53. Yerliyurt, B. (2009). Kentsel Kiyi Alanlarinda Yer AlanSanayi̇Bölgeleri̇nde DönüşStrateji̇leri̇niDeğerlendi̇ri̇lmesi̇;Hali̇ç – TersanelerBölgesi̇. 9(1), 41–46.
54. Yilmaz, C. (2020). KÜÇÜLEN KENTLERE YÖNELİK EKONOMİK, SOSYAL VE MEKANSAL POLİTİKALARIN ALMANYA ERFURT VE TÜRKİYE ZONGULDAK ÖRNEKLERİ ÜZERİNDEN İNCELENMESİ. MİMAR SİNAN GÜZEL SANATLAR ÜNİVERSİTESİ.