Place and Importance of Mycotoxins in Dairy Cattle Nutrition

Year 2013, , 57 - 69, 01.06.2013

Bilal Çankırı Cangir Uyarlar

https://doi.org/10.5578/kvj.6339

Cited By: 1

Abstract

Fungi are filamentous (fuzzy or dusty looking) fungus which have more cellular compounds than yeasts that occur in many feedstuffs; including roughages and concentrates; molds can infect dairy cattle when they are immune suppressed especially during stressful periods. Molds cause a disease referred to as mycosis (Whitlow and Hagler, 2005). Fungi also produce poisons called mycotoxins that affect animals when they consume mycotoxin contaminated feeds. This disorder is called mycotoxicosis (Whitlow and Hagler, 2005). It has been estimated that 25% of the world’s crops are affected by mould or fungal growth. These fungal toxins range in molecular weight from ca. 200 to 500 (Whitlow and Hagler, 2013). The complex diet of ruminants, consisting of forages, concentrates, and preserved feeds, can be a source of very diverse mycotoxins that contaminate individual feed components. A number of mycotoxins are successfully inactivated by the rumen flora, whereas others pass unchanged or are converted into metabolites that retain biological activity. Thus, the barrier function of the rumen largely determines the susceptibility of dairy cows and other ruminant species towards individual mycotoxins (FinkGremmels, 2008). Usually, exposure is through consumption of contaminated feedstuffs or foods. Mycotoxicoses are diseases caused by exposure to foods or feeds contaminated with mycotoxins (Nelson et al.,1993). Mycotoxins exhibit a variety of biological effects in animals such as: liver and kidney toxicity, central nervous system abnormalities, estrogenic responses and others (Whitlow and Hagler, 2013)

Keywords

Transmission Mycotoxins Rumen

Mikotoksinlerin Süt Sığırlarının Beslenmesindeki Yeri ve Önemi

Abstract

Mantarlar; kaba ve konsantre yemleri içeren bir çok yem hammaddesinde görülen, mayalarla karşılaştırıldığında çok hücreli koloniler şeklinde gelişen ipliksi (bulanık ve tozlu görünümlü)mikroorganizmalardır ve süt sığırlarında özellikle stres gibi nedenlerle immun sistemin baskılandığı dönemlerde mikozis diye bilinen hastalığa yol açarlar (Whitlow ve Hagler, 2005). Mantarlar aynı zamanda mikotoksin denilen toksinler üretirler ve bu toksinlerle kontamine yemler alındığında hayvanı etkiler. Bu etkileme sonucunda oluşun bozukluğa mikotoksikozis denir (Whitlow ve Hagler, 2005). Dünya bitkilerinin 4 de birinin mantarlar tarafından etkilendiği bildirilmektedir (Bryden 2007). Mikotoksinlerin molekül ağırlıkları 200 ile 500 (ca.) arasında farklılıklar gösterir (Whitlow ve Hagler, 2013). Ruminantların kompleks diyetlerini oluşturan; Mera, Konsantre ve Konserve yemler bir çok mikotoksin için kaynak olabilirler. Birçok mikotoksin rumen florası tarafından inaktive edilirken diğerleri sindirim kanalını ya değişmeden geçerler yada biyolojik aktivitesini devam ettirebilen metabolitlere dönüşürler. Bu yüzden rumenin bariyer fonksiyonu süt sığırlarının ve diğer sığırların mikotoksine duyarlılığını geniş ölçüde belirler (FinkGremmels, 2008). Genellikle mikotoksinlere maruz kalma kontamine yem hammaddelerinin veya gıdaların tüketilmesi yoluyla şekillenir. Mikotoksinle kontamine yemlere veya gıdalara maruz kalma sonucu şekillenen hastalığa ise mikotoksikozis denir (Nelson ve ark., 1993). Mikotoksinler ; böbrek ve karaciğer toksisitesi, Merkezi sinir sistemi bozuklukları, östrojenik cevaplar, karsinojenik, teratojenik ve mutojenik etkileri içeren çeşitli biyolojik etkiler ortaya çıkarırlar (Whitlow ve Hagler, 2013)

Keywords

-

References

• Boyacioglu, D., N.S. Hettiarachchy ve R.W. Stack. 1992. Effect of three systemic fungicides on deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin) production by Fusarium graminearum in wheat. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72:93-101.
• Brucato, M., S. F. Sundlof, J. U. Bell ve G. T. Edds. 1986. Aflatoxin B1 toxicosis in dairy calves pretreated with selenium-vitamine E. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:179-183.
• Caloni F, Spotti M, Auerbach H, Op den Camp H, Fink-Gremmels J, Pompa G. 2000. In vitro metabolism of fumonisin B1 by ruminal microflora. Communications 24:379–387. Research
• CAST. (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology). 1989. "Mycotoxins: Economics and Health Risks". Task Force Report No. 116. Ames, IA.
• Charmley, E., H.L. Trenholm, B.K. Thompson, D. Vudathala, J.W.G. Nicholson, D.B. Prelusky, ve L.L. Charmley. 1993. Influence of level of deoxynivalenol in the diet of dairy cows on feed intake, milk production and its composition. J. Dairy Sci. 6:3580-3587.
• Charmley E, Trenholm HL, Thompson BK, Vudathala D, Nicholson JW, Prelusky DB, Charmley LL 1993. Influence of level deoxynivalenol in the diet of dairy cows feed intake, milk production and its composition. J Dairy Sci. 6: 3580-3587.
• Cheeke PR. 1995. Endogenous toxins and mycotoxins in forage grasses and their effects on livestock. Journal of Animal Science. 73:909–918.
• Christensen, C.M., C.J. Mirocha, ve R.A. Meronuck. 1988. "Molds and Mycotoxins in Feeds". Minn. Ext. Serv. Bull. AG-FO-3538. Univ. MN, St. Paul.
• Chu, F.S., ve G.Y. Li. 1994. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisin B 1 and other mycotoxins in moldy corn collected from the People's Republic of China in regions with high incidences of esophageal cancer. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:847-852.
• Coffey, M .T., W. M . Hagler, Jr. ve J.M. Cullen. 1989. Influence of dietary protein, fat, or amino acids on the response of weanling swine to aflatoxin B1. J. Anim. Sci. 67:465- 469.
• Cole RJ, Kirksey JW, Dorner JW, Wilson DM, Johnson Jr J, Bedell D, Springer JP, Chexal KK, Clardy J, Cox RH. 1977. Mycotoxins fumigatus isolated from silage. Annual Nutrition Alimentation. 31:685–691.
• Cook, W.O., G.D. Osweiler, T.D. Andersen ve J.L. Richard. 1986. Ochratoxicosis in Iowa swine. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:1399- 1402.
• Coppock, R.W., M.S. Mostrom, C.G. Sparling, B. Jacobsen, ve S.C. Ross. 1990. Apparent zearalenone intoxication in a dairy herd from feeding spoiled acid-treated corn. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 32:246-248.
• Cotty, P.J ., P. Bayman, D.S. Egel ve D.S. Elias. 1994. Agriculture, aflatoxins and Aspergillus. pp. 1-27. In: K.A. Powell, A. Fenwick ve J.F. Peberdy (Eds) "The Genus Aspergillus" Plenum Press. New York.
• Coulumbe, R.A. 1993. Symposium: biological action of mycotoxins. J. Dairy Sci. 76:880-891.
• Danicke S, Matthaus K, Lebzien P, Valenta H, Stemme K, Ueberschar KH, Razzazi- Fazeli E, Bohm J, Flachowsky G. 2005. Effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat grain on nutrient turnover, microbial protein synthesis and metabolism of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in the rumen of dairy cows. Journal of Animal Physiolology Animal Nutrition (Berl) 89:303–315.
• Deiner, U.L., R.J. Cole, T.H Sanders, G.A. Payne, L.S. Lee ve M.A. Klich. 1987. Epidemiology of aflatoxin formation by Aspergillus flavus. Ann. Rev. Phytopathology. 25:240-270.
• Desjardins, A.E., T.M. Hohn ve S.P. McCormick. biosynthesis in Fusarium species: chemistry, genetics and significance. Microbiol. Reviews 57:594-604. Trichothecene
• Diaz, D.E., J. T. Blackwelder, W.M. Hagler, Jr., B.A. Hopkins, F.T. Jones, K.L. Anderson ve L.W. Whitlow. 1997. The potential of dietary clay products to reduce aflatoxin transmission to milk of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 80(abstr.):261.
• Diaz, D.E., B.A. Hopkins, L.M. Leonard, W.M. Hagler, Jr., ve L.W. Whitlow. 2000. Effect of fumonisin on lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 83(abstr.):1171.
• Diaz, D.E., W. M. Hagler, Jr., B.A. Hopkins, J.A. Eve ve L.W. Whitlow. 1999. The potential for dietary sequestering agents to reduce the transmission of dietary aflatoxin to milk of dairy cows and to bind aflatoxin in vitro. J. Dairy Sci. 82(abstr.):838.
• Diaz, D.E., W. M. Hagler, Jr., B.A. Hopkins, R.A. Patton, C. Brownie, ve L.W. Whitlow. 2001. The effect of inclusion of a clay type sequestering agent on milk production of dairy contaminated 84(abstr.):1554. mycotoxins feeds. J. Dairy Sci.
• DiCostanzo, A., L. Johnston, H. Windels, ve M. Murphy. 1995. A review of the effects of molds and mycotoxins in ruminants. Prof. Anim. Scientist. 12:138-150.
• Diekman, D.A., ve M.L. Green. 1992. Mycotoxins and reproduction in domestic livestock. J. Anim. Sci. 70:1615-1627.
• Driehuis F, Spanjer MC, Scholten M, Giffel MC 2008. Occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs of dairy cows and estimation of total dietary intakes. J Dairy Sci. 91: 4261-4271.
• Dutton, M.F., K. Westlake, ve M.S. Anderson. 1984. The interaction between additives, yeasts and patulin production in grass silage. Mycopathologia. 87:29-33.
• Escoula L. 1975. Toxinogenic moulds of silage. IV. Patulin production in liquid medium using fungus species isolated in silages (author’s trans). Annual Research Veterinary. 6:303– 310.
• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). 2004. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the Commission related to Aflatoxin B1 as undesirable substance in animal feed. Request No. EFSA-Q- 2003-035. EFSA. Parma, Italy.
• Gajęcki M. 2010. Mikotoksykozy u bydła. Lecznica Dużych Zwierząt. 5: 108-112.
• Galey, F.D., R.J. Lambert, M. Busse ve W.B. Buck. 1987. Therapeutic efficacy of superactive charcoal in rats exposed to oral lethal doses of T-2 toxin. Toxicon. 25:493- 499.
• Galvano, F., A. Pietri, T. Bertuzzi, G. Fusconi, M. Galvano, A. Piva, ve G. Piva. 1996. Reduction of carryover of aflatoxin from cow feed to milk by addition of activated carbons. J. Food. Prot. 59:551-554.
• Garon D. , Richard E, Sage L, Bouchart V, Pottier D, Lebailly P. 2006. Mycoflora and multimycotoxin detection in corn silage: experimental study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54:3479–3484.
• Gelderblom, W.C.A., K. Jaskiewicz, W.F.O. Marasas, P.G. Thiel, R.M. Horak, R. Vleggaar ve N.P.J. 1988. Kriek. Fumonisins: Novel mycotoxins with cancer-promoting activity produced by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:1806-1811.
• Gentry, P.A., M.L. Ross, ve P.K-C. Chan. 1984. Effect of T-2 toxin on bovine hematological and serum enzyme parameters. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 26:24-24.
• Gotlieb, A. 1997. Causes of mycotoxins in silages. pp. 213-221. In: Silage: Field to Feedbunk, NRAES-99, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY.
• Hacking, A. ve W. R. Rosser. 1981. Patulin production by Paecilomyces species isolated from silage in the United Kingdom. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 32:620-623.
• Hamilton, P.B. 1984. Determining safe levels of mycotoxins. J. Food Prot. 47:570-575.
• Harvey, R.B., L.F. Kubena, T.D. Phillips, W.E. Huff, ve D.E. Corrier. 1988. Approaches to the prevention of aflatoxicosis. pp. 102-107. Proc. Maryland Nutr. Conf., Univ. MD, College Park.
• Huff, W.E., L.F. Kubena ve R.B. Harvey. 1988. Progression of ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 67:1139-1146.
• Hult K, Teiling A, Gatenbeck S. 1976. Degradation of ochratoxin A by a ruminant. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 32: 443–444.
• Hsu, I.C., C.B. Smalley, F.M. Strong, ve W.E. Ribelin. 1972. Identification of T-2 toxin in moldy corn associated with a lethal toxicosis in dairy cattle. Appl. Microbiol. 24:684-690.
• Ingalls, J.R. 1996. Influence of deoxynivalenol on feed consumption by dairy cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 60:297-300.
• Jelinek, C.F. 1987. Distribution of mycotoxin - An analysis of worldwide commodities data, including data from FAO/WHO/UNEP food contamination monitoring programme. Joint International Conference on Mycotoxins. Bangkok, Thailand. Second
• Joffe, A.Z. 1986. "Fusarium Species: Their Biology and Toxicology". John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
• Johanna, Fink-Gremmels 2008. Mycotoxins in cattle feeds and carry-over to dairy milk: A review. Food Additives and Contaminants, February, 25(2): 172–180.
• Kallela, K., ve E. Ettala. 1984. The oestrogenic Fusarium toxin (zearalenone) in hay as a cause of early abortions in the cow. Nord. Vet. Med. 36:305-309.
• Kegl, T., ve A. Vanyi. 1991. T-2 fusariotoxicosis in a cattle stock. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja. 46:467-471.
• Kennedy DG, Hewitt SA, McEvoy JD, Currie JW, Cannavan A, Blanchflower WJ, Elliot CT. 1998. Zeranol is formed from Fusarium spp. toxins in cattle in vivo. Food Additives and Contaminants 15:393–400.
• Khamis, Y., H.A. Hammad, ve N.A. Hemeida. 1986. Mycotoxicosis with oestrogenic effect in cattle. Zuchthyg. 21:233-236.
• Kiessling KH, Pettersson H, Sandholm K, Olsen M. 1984. Metabolism of aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zearalenone, and three trichothecenes by intact rumen fluid, rumen protozoa, and rumen bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 47:1070–1073.
• Kosuri, N.R., M.D. Grave, S.G. Yates, W.H. Tallent, J.J. Ellis, I.A. Wolff, ve R.E. Nichols. 1970. Response of cattle to mycotoxins of Fusarium tricinctum isolated from corn and fescue. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 157:938-940.
• Kriek, N.P.J., T.S. Kellerman, ve W.F.O. Marasas. 1981. A comparitive study of the toxicity of Fusarium verticilloides (F. moniliforme) to horses, primates, pigs, sheep, and rats. Onderspoort J Vet. Res. 48:129-131.
• Kubena, L.F., R.B. Harvey, W.E. Huff, M.H. Elissalde, A.G. Yersin, T.D. Phillips ve G.E. 1993. Rottinghaus. Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin and diacetoxyscirpenol. Poultry Sci. 72:51-59.
• Kuilman ME, Maas RF, Fink-Gremmels J. 2001. Cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism and cytotoxicity of aflatoxin B(1) in bovine hepatocytes. Toxicology In Vitro 4:321–327.
• Kurtzman, C.P., B.W. Horn ve C.W. Hesseltine. 1987. aflatoxinproducing Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus tamarii. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 53:147-158. a related to species
• Krogh, P., F. Elling, C. Friis, B. Hald, A.E. Larsen, E.B. Lillehoj, A. Madsen, H.P. Mortensen, Ravnskov. 1979. Porcine nephropathy induced by long-term ingestion of ochratoxin A. Vet. Pathol. 16:466-475. ve U.
• Lacey, J. 1991. Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in growing and conserved forage crops. pp. 363- 397. In: J. E. Smith ve R. E. Henderson (Eds.), "Mycotoxins and Animal Foods". CRC Press, Boca Raton.
• Lindemann, M.D. ve D.J. 1991. Blodgett. Various clays provide alternative for dealing with Aflatoxin. Feedstuffs 63:15-29.
• Mann, D.D., G.M. Buening, B. Hook, ve G.D. Osweiler. 1983. Effects of T-2 mycotoxin on bovine serum proteins. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 44:1757-1759.
• Mansfield, MA. ve Kuldau GA. 2007. Microbiological and molecular determination of mycobiota in fresh and ensiled maize silage. Mycologia. 99:269–278.
• Marczuk, J. , K. Obremski, K. Lutnicki, M. Gajęcka ve M. Gajęcki. 2012. Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxicosis in dairy cattle herds. Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences Vol. 15, No. 2, 365-372.
• McLaughlin, C.S. M.H. Vaughan, I.M. Campbell, C.M. Wei, M.E. Stafford, ve B.S. Hansen. 1977. Inhibition of protein synthesis by trichothecenes. p. 261–284. In: J. V. Rodricks, C.W. Hesseltine, ve M.A. Mehlman (ed.), Mycotoxins in human and animal health. Pathotox Publications, Park Forest South, Ill.
• Miller DM, Wilson DM. 1994. Veterinary diseases related to aflatoxins. In: Eaton DL, Groopman JD, editors. The toxicology of aflatoxins. San Diego (CA): Academic Press. pp 347–364.
• Mirocha, C.J., S.V. Pathre, ve C.M. Christensen. 1976. Zearalenone. pp. 345-364. In: J.V. Rodricks, C.W. Hesseltine, ve M.A. Mehlman. (Eds.) Mycotoxins in Human and Animal Health. Pathotox. Publ., Park Forest, IL.
• Muller HM, Muller K, Steingass H. 2001. Effect of feeding regime on the metabolism of ochratoxin A during the in vitro incubation in buffered rumen fluid from cows. Archiv fu r Tierernahrung 54:265–279.
• Nawaz S, Scudamore KA, Rainbird SC. 1997. Mycotoxins in ingredients of animal feeding stuffs: I. Determination of Alternaria mycotoxins in oilseed rape meal and sunflower seed meal. Food Additives and Contaminants. 14:249–262.
• Nelson P.E., A.E. Desjardins ve R.D. Plattner 1993. Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species: Biology, chemistry and significance. In: R.J. Cook, (Ed) Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 31:233-249.
• Nibbelink, S.K. 1986. Aflatoxicosis in food animals: A clinical review. Iowa State Univ. Vet. 48:28- 31.
• NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1999. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies on fumonisin B1 in F344/N rats and B6CF1 mice (feed studies). Technical Report Series, n 496. NIH Publication No. 99-3955. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health Research Triangle Park, NC.
• O’Brien, M. , O’Kiely P, Forristal PD, Fuller HT. 2005. Fungi isolated from contaminated baled grass silage on farms in the Irish Midlands. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 247:131– 135.
• O’Brien M, Nielsen KF, O’Kiely P, Forristal PD, Fuller HT, Frisvad JC. 2006. Mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites produced in vitro by Penicillium paneum Frisvad and Penicillium roqueforti Thom isolated from baled grass silage in Ireland. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 54:9268– 9276.
• Petrie, L., J. Robb, ve A.F. Stewart. 1977. The identification of T-2 toxin and its association with a hemorrhagic syndrome in cattle. Vet. Rec. 101:326-326.
• Pettersson H. 1998. Concerning Swedish derogation on aflatoxin. Complement to the Memo of 97-03-03 on ‘Carry-over of aflatoxin from feedingstuffs to milk’. Uppsala (Sweden): Department of Animal Nutrition and management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
• Pier A.C., J.L. Richard, ve S.J. Cysewski. 1980. The implication of mycotoxins in animal disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 176:719-722.
• Placinta CM, d’Mello JPF, MacDonald EK. 1999. A review of worldwide contamination of animal feed with fusavium mycotoxins. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 78:21– 37.
• Radostits, O. M., G. P. Searcy, ve K. G. Mitchall. 1980. Moldy sweetclover poisoning in cattle. Can. Vet. J. 21:155-158.
• Rheeder, J.P., S.F.O. Marassas, P.G. Thiel, E.W. Sydenham, G.S. Spephard, ve D.J. VanSchalkwyk. 1992. Fusarium moniliforme ve fumonisins in corn in relation to human esophageal Phytopathologh 82:353-357. in Transkei.
• Richard JL, Meerdink G, Maragos CM, Tumbleson M, Bordson G, Rice LG, Ross PF. 1996. Absence of detectable fumonisins in the milk of cows fed Fusarium proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg culture material. Mycopathologia 133:123–126.
• Roine, K., E.L. Korpinen, ve K. Kallela. 1971. Mycotoxicosis as a probable cause of infertility in dairy cows. Nord. Vet. Med. 23:628-633.
• Russell, L., D.F. Cox, G. Larsen, K. Bodwell, ve C.E Nelson. 1991. Incidence of molds and mycotoxins in commercial animal feed mills in seven Midwestern states, 1988-89. J. Anim. Sci. 69:5-12.
• Scheideler, S.E. 1993. Effects of various types of aluminosilicates and allatoxin B1 on aflatoxin toxicity, chick performance and mineral status.. Poulty Sci. 72:282-288.
• Schneweis I, Meyer K, Hormansdorfer S, Bauer J. 2001. Metabolites of Monascus ruber in silages. Journal of Animal Physiolology Animal Nutrition (Berl). 85:38–44.
• Scott, P.M., T. Delgado, D.B. Prelusky, H.L. Trenholm, ve Determination of fumonisin in milk. J. Environ. Sci. Health. B29:989-998. 1994.
• Scudamore KA, Nawaz S, Hetmanski MT. 1998. Mycotoxins in ingredients of animal feeding stuffs: II. Determination of mycotoxins in maize and maize products. Food Additives and Contaminants. 15:30–55.
• Scudamore KA, Nawaz S, Hetmanski MT, Rainbird SC. 1998. Mycotoxins in ingredients of animal feeding stuffs: III. Determination of mycotoxins in rice bran. Food Additives and Contaminants. 15:185– 194.
• Seeling K, Danicke S, Ueberschar KH, Lebzien P, Flachowsky G. 2005. On the effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat and the feed intake level on the metabolism and carry over of zearalenone in dairy cows. Food Additives and Contaminants 22:847–855.
• Seeling K, Boghun J, Strobel E, Da¨nicke S, Valenta H, Ueberschar KH, Rodehutscord M. 2006. On the effects of Fusarium toxin contaminated wheat and what chaff on nutrient utilization and turnover of deoxynivalenol and zearlanone in vitro (Rusitec). Toxicology in Vitro 20:703–711.
• Seeling K, Danicke S, Valenta H, Van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jekel AA, Lebzien P, Schollenberger M, Razzazi-Fazeli E, Flachowsky G. 2006. Effects of Fusarium toxin-contaminated wheat and feed intake level on the biotransformation and carryover of deoxynivalenol in dairy cows. Food Additives and Contaminants 23:1008–1020.
• Seglar, B. 1997. Case studies that implicate silage mycotoxins as the cause of dairy herd problems. pp. 242-254. In: Silage: Field to Feedbunk. NRAES-99, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY.
• Smith, J.W., C.H. Hill ve P.B. Hamilton. 1971. The effect of dietary modifications. on aflatoxicosis in the broiler chicken. Poultry Sci. 50:768-771.
• Smith, T.K. 1980. Influence of dietary fiber, protein and zeolite on zearalenone toxicosis in rats and swine. J. Anim. Sci. 50:278-285.
• Sreemannarayana, O., A.A. Frohlich, T.G. Vitti, R.R. Marquart ve D. Abramson. 1988. Studies of the tolerance and disposition of ochratoxin A in young calves. J. Animal Sci. 66:1703-1711.
• Still, P., A. W. Macklin, W. E. Ribelin, ve E. B. 1971. Smalley. Relationship of ochratoxin A to foetal death in laboratory and domestic animals. Nature. 234:563-564.
• Trail, F., N. Mahanti, M. Rarick, R. Mehigh, S.H. Liang, R. Zhou ve J. Linz. 1995. Physical and transcriptional map of an aflatoxin gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus and functional disruption of a gene involved early in the aflatoxin pathway. Appl. Environ. Micro. 61:2665-2673.
• Van Egmond HP. 1989. Aflatoxin M1: occurrence, toxicity, regulation. In: Van Egmond HP, editor. Mycotoxins in dairy products. London (UK): Elsevier Applied Science.
• Van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA. 2007. Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food: perspectives in a global and European context. Chemistry 389:147–157. and Bioanalytical
• Veldman A, Meijst JAC, Borggreve GJ, Heeres- van Tol JJ. 1992. Carry-over of aflatoxin from cow’s food to milk. Animal Production 55:163–168.
• Wannemacher, R.W., Jr., D.L. Brunner, ve H.A. Neufeld. 1991. Toxicity of trichothecenes and other related mycotoxins in laboratory animals. pp. 499-552. In: J.E. Smith ve R.S. Henderson (Eds.), Mycotoxins and Animal Foods. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
• Wayne, L. Bryden 2007. Mycotoxins in the food chain: human health implications. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr;16 (Suppl 1):95-101.
• Weaver, G.A., H. J. Kurtz, C.J. Mirocha, F.Y. Bates, J.C. Behrens, T. S. Robison, ve S. P. Swanson. 1980. The failure of T-2 mycotoxin to produce hemorrhaging in dairy cattle. Can. Vet. J. 21:210-213.
• Weaver, G.A., H.J. Kurtz, J.C. Behrens, T.S. Robison, B.E. Seguin, F.Y. Bates, ve C.J. Mirocha. 1986. Effect of zearalenone on the fertility of virgin dairy heifers. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:1395-1397.
• Whitlow, L.W., R.L. Nebel, ve W.M. Hagler, Jr. 1994. The association of deoxynivalenol in grain with milk production loss in dairy cows. pp. 131-139. In: G.C. Llewellyn, W. V. Dashek ve C. E. O=Rear, (eds.), Biodeterioration Research 4. Plenum Press, New York.
• Whitlow, L.W. ve Hagler W.M. 2005. Mycotoxins: a review of dairy concerns. Mid-South Ruminant Nutrition Conference, 47-58.
• Whitlow, L.W. ve W.M. Hagler: Mycotoxin Contamination of Feedstuffs - An Additional Stress http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/an_sci/extension/ dairy/mycoto~1.pdf Erişim tarihi: 10.05.2013
• Whittaker, T.B., J.W. Dickens, F.G. Giesbrecht. 1991. Testing mycotoxins: sampling, subsampling, and analysis. pp. 153-164. In: J.E. Smith ve R.S. Henderson (Eds.), "Mycotoxins and Animal Foods". CRC Press, Boca Raton. for
• Wicklow, D.T. 1983. Taxonomic features and ecological significance of sclerotia. In: U.L. Deiner, R.L. Asquith ve J.W. Dickens. (Eds) "Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in Corn". Southern Coop. Serv. Bull. 279. Craftmaster, Opelika, AL.
• Xiao H, Marquardt RR, Frohlich AA, Ohilipps GD, Vitti TG. 1991. Effect of a hay and grain diet in the rate of hydrolysis of ochratoxin A in the rumen of sheep. Journal of An