GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES WITHOUT GROWTH: THE CASE OF TURKEY
Year 2021,
, 1369 - 1393, 30.11.2021
Orçun Söylemez
,
Özkan Zülfüoğlu
Abstract
Share of government expenditures in the GDPs are increasing virtually everywhere. Available data for developed countries indicate that the beginnings of this upward trend date back to the mid-19th century. Interestingly, economic growth rates did not increase significantly over time despite the increases in government expenditures. Low income countries today spend more than the double of what today’s developed economies were spending on average in 1900. However, this is not helping them to converge to richer economies. Why are government expenditures increasing then? This question might have global pertinence but due to the variety of country-specific factors, it can be best studied on a single country level. In this article, the country of focal interest is Turkey. Five important variables that might affect government expenditures from different angles are evaluated regarding their contributions to the out-of-sample predictions of government expenditures using random forest methodology. Military expenditures are estimated as primarily important for determining the government expenditures in Turkey in the last fifty years, while tax collections happened to be the second most important factor affecting the ups and downs of government expenditures around a time-varying average line. Per capita income, urbanization and inflation also affect government expenditures in various ways.
References
- Adams, H. C. (1898). The Science of Finance, an Investigation of Public Expenditures and Public Revenues. Holt and Co., New York.
- Buchanan, J. and Tullock, G. (1962). The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
- Domar, E. D. (1957). Essays in the Theory of Economic Growth. Oxford University Press.
- Fabricant, S. (1952). The Trend of Government Activity in the United States Since 1900. National Bureau of Economic Research, New York. (assisted by Robert E. Lipsey).
- Fiscal Prudence and Profligacy Database. The International Monetary Fund (IMF). Retrieved on 12 Sep. 2020 from https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/FPP/1
- Genel Devlet Toplam Gelir ve Harcamaları, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı (General Government Total Revenues and Expenditures data from Turkish Presidency, Directorate for Strategy and Budget). Retrieved on 01 Oct. 2020 from https://www.sbb.gov.tr/yillar-bazinda-genel-devlet-istatistikleri/
- Harrod, R. (1948). Towards a Dynamic Economics: Some Recent Developments of Economic Theory and Their Application to Policy. MacMillan and Co. Ltd., UK.
- Ho, T. K. (1995). Random Decision Forests. ICDAR '95: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Vol.1 – 08.01.1995.
- Izvorski, I. and Karakülah, K. (2019). 4 Lessons for Developing Countries from Advanced Economies’ Past. Retrieved on 03 Oct. 2020 from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2019/02/20/4-lessons-for-developing-countries-from-advanced-economies-past/
- Kamu Finanmanı Tablo V., Ekonomik ve Sosyal Göstergeler. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı (Public Finances Table V, Economic and Social Indicators from Turkish Presidency, Directorate for Strategy and Budget). Retrieved on 01 Oct. 2020 from https://www.sbb.gov.tr/ekonomik-ve-sosyal-gostergeler/#1540022258789-43a5759e-f454
- Krueger, A. O. (1995). Partial Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s in Turkey. (Eds. Dornbusch, R. and Edwards, S.) Reform, Recovery, and Growth: Latin America and the Middle East. University of Chicago Press, 343-68.
- Mauro, P., Romeu, R., Binder, A., & Zaman, A. (2015). A modern history of fiscal prudence and profligacy. Journal of Monetary Economics, 76, 55-70.
- Musgrave, R. A. and Peacock, A. T. (1958). Classics in the Theory of Public Finance. Palgrave MacMillan, UK.
- Ortiz-Ospina, E. and Roser, M. (2016). "Government Spending" Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved on 02 Sep. 2020 from https://ourworldindata.org/government-spending
- Peacock, A. T. and Wiseman, J. (1961). Determinants of Government Expenditure. (Eds. Peacock A. T. and Wiseman, J.) The Growth of Public Expenditure in the United Kingdom. Princeton University Press, 12-34.
- Pigou, A. C. (1947). Economic Progress in a Stable Environment". Economica, 14(55), 180-88.
- Radford, J. and Joseph, K. (2020). Theory In, Theory Out: The Uses of Social Theory in Machine Learning for Social Science. Frontiers in Big Data. Retrieved on 29 Sep. 2020 from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdata.2020.00018/full
- Solano, P. L. (1983). Institutional Explanations of Public Expenditures among High Income Democracies. Public Finance, 38(3), 440-58.
- Wagner, A. (1890). Finanzwissenchaft. Winter, C. F., Leipzig.
- Turkish Statistical Institute. National Accounts – Growth Rates. Retrieved on 10 Sep. 2020 from http://www.tuik.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=temelist
BÜYÜMEYE DÖNÜŞMEYEN KAMU HARCAMALARI: TÜRKİYE ÖRNEĞİ
Year 2021,
, 1369 - 1393, 30.11.2021
Orçun Söylemez
,
Özkan Zülfüoğlu
Abstract
Kamu harcamalarının GSYH içerisindeki payı hemen hemen dünyanın her yanında artış göstermektedir. Gelişmiş ülkeler için elde var olan veriler, sözkonusu artış trendinin 19.yy'ın ortalarından beri devam ettiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Daha ilginç olan ise, devlet harcamalarındaki artış trendine rağmen ekonomik büyüme oranlarının zaman içerisinde anlamlı bir artış kaydetmemiş olmasıdır. Örneğin, günümüzdeki en fakir ülkeler gelişmiş ülkelerin 1900'ların başında GSYH'ya oranla harcadığının iki katından fazla kamu harcaması yapmaktaysa da bu onların düşük gelirli seviyeden daha yüksek seviyelere geçiş yapmalarına yetmemektedir. Bu durumda kamu harcamalarının neden artış gösterdiği ilginç bir soru olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ancak küresel ölçekte değer taşıyan bu soru ne yazık ki her ülkenin kendine özgü şartları düşünüldüğünde ülkeler bazında çalışılması gereken bir konudur. Çalışmada bu soruya Türkiye örneği üzerinde yoğunlaşılmıştır. Rassal orman metodu denen yöntemle kamu harcamalarına farklı açılardan etki edebilecek beş önemli değişken örneklemdışı tahmin performansları dikkate alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. Neticede Türkiye'de son elli yılda askeri harcamaların kamu harcamalarını artıran en önemli unsurlardan olduğu, ikinci olarak toplanan vergilerin de kamu harcamalarında ortalamaya göre artış ya da azalışları belirleyen nitelikte olduğu ortaya çıkartılmıştır. Bunlardan başka, kişi başına gelir, şehirleşme ve enflasyon da çeşitli şekillerde kamu harcamalarını etkilemektedir.
References
- Adams, H. C. (1898). The Science of Finance, an Investigation of Public Expenditures and Public Revenues. Holt and Co., New York.
- Buchanan, J. and Tullock, G. (1962). The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
- Domar, E. D. (1957). Essays in the Theory of Economic Growth. Oxford University Press.
- Fabricant, S. (1952). The Trend of Government Activity in the United States Since 1900. National Bureau of Economic Research, New York. (assisted by Robert E. Lipsey).
- Fiscal Prudence and Profligacy Database. The International Monetary Fund (IMF). Retrieved on 12 Sep. 2020 from https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/FPP/1
- Genel Devlet Toplam Gelir ve Harcamaları, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı (General Government Total Revenues and Expenditures data from Turkish Presidency, Directorate for Strategy and Budget). Retrieved on 01 Oct. 2020 from https://www.sbb.gov.tr/yillar-bazinda-genel-devlet-istatistikleri/
- Harrod, R. (1948). Towards a Dynamic Economics: Some Recent Developments of Economic Theory and Their Application to Policy. MacMillan and Co. Ltd., UK.
- Ho, T. K. (1995). Random Decision Forests. ICDAR '95: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Vol.1 – 08.01.1995.
- Izvorski, I. and Karakülah, K. (2019). 4 Lessons for Developing Countries from Advanced Economies’ Past. Retrieved on 03 Oct. 2020 from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2019/02/20/4-lessons-for-developing-countries-from-advanced-economies-past/
- Kamu Finanmanı Tablo V., Ekonomik ve Sosyal Göstergeler. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı (Public Finances Table V, Economic and Social Indicators from Turkish Presidency, Directorate for Strategy and Budget). Retrieved on 01 Oct. 2020 from https://www.sbb.gov.tr/ekonomik-ve-sosyal-gostergeler/#1540022258789-43a5759e-f454
- Krueger, A. O. (1995). Partial Adjustment and Growth in the 1980s in Turkey. (Eds. Dornbusch, R. and Edwards, S.) Reform, Recovery, and Growth: Latin America and the Middle East. University of Chicago Press, 343-68.
- Mauro, P., Romeu, R., Binder, A., & Zaman, A. (2015). A modern history of fiscal prudence and profligacy. Journal of Monetary Economics, 76, 55-70.
- Musgrave, R. A. and Peacock, A. T. (1958). Classics in the Theory of Public Finance. Palgrave MacMillan, UK.
- Ortiz-Ospina, E. and Roser, M. (2016). "Government Spending" Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved on 02 Sep. 2020 from https://ourworldindata.org/government-spending
- Peacock, A. T. and Wiseman, J. (1961). Determinants of Government Expenditure. (Eds. Peacock A. T. and Wiseman, J.) The Growth of Public Expenditure in the United Kingdom. Princeton University Press, 12-34.
- Pigou, A. C. (1947). Economic Progress in a Stable Environment". Economica, 14(55), 180-88.
- Radford, J. and Joseph, K. (2020). Theory In, Theory Out: The Uses of Social Theory in Machine Learning for Social Science. Frontiers in Big Data. Retrieved on 29 Sep. 2020 from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fdata.2020.00018/full
- Solano, P. L. (1983). Institutional Explanations of Public Expenditures among High Income Democracies. Public Finance, 38(3), 440-58.
- Wagner, A. (1890). Finanzwissenchaft. Winter, C. F., Leipzig.
- Turkish Statistical Institute. National Accounts – Growth Rates. Retrieved on 10 Sep. 2020 from http://www.tuik.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=temelist