Theoretical Article
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Power and Leniency Error with Regard to Cultural Differences: A Conceptual Study within the Framework of Values and Norms

Year 2021, , 246 - 258, 31.03.2021
https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.883229

Abstract

Performance appraisal is one of the most important practices that form the basis of managerial decisions about employees and affect the effectiveness and efficiency of organizations. However, since the appraisal is a judgemental process, errors are inevitable. In terms of the sustainable competitiveness of organizations, it is essential to identify the factors that push the raters to make errors and to reveal the source of the error. With the increase in workforce diversity, “culture” has shone out as a key variable in explaining the causality of employees’ behavior. Hence, in this study, leniency error is examined comparatively within the framework of cultural differences. The concept of “power” is also examined as another basic variable of the study because of different levels of power due to the raters at different levels of the organizational hierarchy. Unlike other studies, in this study, cultural differences that shape behavior are discussed in the context of norms and values. In other words, leniency error and differences in power levels among raters and their relations were conceptually analyzed on the basis of culture from the perspective of values and norms. As a result of the study, it is determined that the tendency to make the leniency error varies according to cultural characteristics, values, and norms. It has also been shown that the tendency of the raters to make leniency error differs according to the level of power they have. Finally, it was found that power level differences with different values and norms affect raters’ tendency to make leniency error.

References

  • Antonioni, D., ve Heejoon, P. (2001). The Relationship between Rater Affect and Three Sources of 360-Degree Feedback Ratings. Journal of Management, 27, 479-495.
  • Arvey, R. D., ve Murphy, K. R. (1998). Performance Evaluation in Work Settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141-168.
  • Atwater, L., Wang, M., Smither, J. W., ve Fleenor, J. W. (2009). Are Cultural Characteristics Associated with The Relationship between Self and Others’ Ratings of Leadership?. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 876-886.
  • Bernardin, H. J., Tyler, C. L., ve Villanova, P. (2009). Rating Level and Accuracy as A Function of Rater Personality. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 17 (3), 300-310.
  • Bernardin, H. J., Villanova, P., ve Cooke, D. (2000). Conscientiousness and Agreeableness as Predictors of Rating Leniency. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 232-236.
  • Cascio, W. F., ve Bailey, E. (1995). International Human Resource Management: The State of Research and Practice. Shenkar, O. (Der.), Global Perspectives of Human Resource Management. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Chiang, F. F. T., ve Birtch, T. A. (2010). Appraising Performance across Borders: An Empirical Examination of The Purposes and Practices of Performance Appraisal in A Multi-Country Context. Journal of Management Studies, 47(7), 1365-1393.
  • Cho, I., ve Payne, S. C. (2016). Other Important Questions: When, How, and Why Do Cultural Values Influence Performance Management? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 9(2), 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.23
  • Davila, A., ve Elvira, M. M. (2007). Psychological Contracts and Performance Management in Mexico. International Journal of Manpower, 28(5), 384-402.
  • Earley, P. C., Gibson, C. B., ve Chen, C. C. (1999). “How Did I Do?” versus “How Did We Do?” Cultural Contrasts of Performance Feedback Use and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(5), 594-619.
  • Farh, J., Dobbins, G. H., ve Cheng, B. (1991). Cultural Relativity in Action: A Comparison of Self Ratings Made by Chinese and U.S. Workers. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 129-147.
  • Ferguson, A. J., Ormiston, M. E., ve Moon, H. (2010). From Approach to Inhibition: The Influence of Power on Responses to Poor Performers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 305-320. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018376
  • Fischer, R. (2006). Congruence and Functions of Personal and Cultural Values: Do My Values Reflect My Culture’s Values?. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(11), 1419-1431.
  • Fischer, R., Ferreira, M. C., Assmar, E., Redford, P., Harb, C., Glazer, S., Cheng, B., Jiang, D., Wong, C. C., Kumar, N., Kärtner, J., Hofer, J., ve Achoui, M. (2009). Individualism-Collectivism as Descriptive Norms: Development of A Subjective Norm Approach to Culture Measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(2), 187-213.
  • Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., ve Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The Cultural Matrix of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
  • Gelfand, M. J., ve Harrington, J. R. (2015). The Motivational Force of Descriptive Norms: For Whom and When Are Descriptive Norms Most Predictive of Behavior? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(10), 1273-1278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115600796
  • Haines, V. Y., ve St-Onge, S. (2012). Performance Management Effectiveness: Practices or Context?. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(6), 1158-1175.
  • Hauenstein, N. M. A. (1992). An Information-Processing Approach to Leniency in Performance Judgments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(4), 485-493.
  • Heidemeier, H., ve Moser, K. (2009). Self–Other Agreement in Job Performance Ratings: A Meta-Analytic Test of A Process Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 353-370.
  • Hofstede, G. (1981). Culture and Organizations. International Studies of Management and Organization, 10(4), 15-41.
  • Kane, J. S., Bernardin, J. H., Villanova, P., ve Peyrefitte, J. (1995). Stability of Rater Leniency: Three studies. Academy of Management Journal, 38(4), 1036-1051.
  • Keleş, S., ve Aycan, Z. (2011). The Relationship of Managerial Values and Assumptions with Performance Management in Turkey: Understanding within Culture Variability. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(15), 3080-3096.
  • Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., ve Anderson, C. (2003). Power, Approach, and Inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2), 265-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265
  • Khilji, E. S. (2003). “To Adapt or Not to Adapt” Exploring The Role of National Culture in HRM - A Study of Pakistan. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 3(1), 109-132.
  • Klehe, U. C., ve Anderson, N. (2007). The Moderating Influence of Personality and Culture on Social Loafing in Typical Versus Maximum Performance Situations. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(2), 250-262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00385.x
  • Korsgaard, M. A., Meglino, B. M., ve Scott, W. L. (2004). The Effect of Other Orientation on Self-Supervisor Rating Agreement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(7), 873-891.
  • Leary, M. R. (1983). A Brief Version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 371–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283093007
  • Lee, F., ve Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Is It Lonely At The Top?: The Independence and Interdependence of Power Holders. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 43-91.
  • Milliman, J., Nason, S., Gallagher, E., Huo, P., Von Glinow, M. A., ve Lowe, K. B. (1998). The Impact of National Culture on Human Resource Management Practices: The Case of Performance Appraisal. Advances in International Comparative Management, 12, 157-183.
  • Mishra, V., ve Roch, S. G. (2017). Do All Raters Value Task, Citizenship, and Counterproductive Behaviors Equally: An Investigation of Cultural Values and Performance Evaluations. Human Performance, 30(4), 193-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2017.1357556
  • Morin, D., ve Renaud, S. (2000). The Effect of Organizational Context on The Motivation of Raters to Produce Lenient Appraisals. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 66(4), 637-654.
  • Ng, K., Koh, C., Ang, S., Kennedy, J. C., ve Chan, K. (2011). Rating Leniency and Halo in Multisource Feedback Ratings: Testing Cultural Assumptions of Power Distance and Individualism-Collectivism. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (5), 1033-1044.
  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., ve Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3-72.
  • Peretz, H., ve Fried, Y. (2012). National Cultures, Performance Appraisal Practices and Organizational Absenteeism and Turnover: A Study across 21 Countries. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2), 448-459.
  • Randall, R., ve Sharples, D. (2012). The Impact of Rater Agreeableness and Rating Context on The Evaluation of Poor Performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85, 42-59.
  • Scherer, K. R., ve Brosch, T. (2009). Culture-Specific Appraisal Biases Contribute to Emotion Dispositions. European Journal of Personality, 23, 265-288.
  • Schmid, P. C., ve Schmid Mast, M. (2013). Power Increases Performance in A Social Evaluation Situation as A Result of Decreased Stress Responses. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(3), 201-211. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1937
  • Schmid Mast, M., Khademi, M., ve Palese, T. (2020). Power and Social Information Processing. Current Opinion in Psychology, 33, 42-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.017
  • Shteynberg, G., Gelfand, M. J., ve Kibum, K. (2009). Peering into The “Magnum Mysterium” of Culture: The Explanatory Power of Descriptive Norms. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(1), 46-69.
  • Smith, P. B. (2004). Acquiescent Response Bias as An Aspect of Cultural Communication Style. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(1), 50-61.
  • Smith, P. B., ve Bond, M. H. (2019). Cultures and Persons: Characterizing National and Other Types of Cultural Difference Can Also Aid Our Understanding and Prediction of Individual Variability. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02689
  • Sturman, M. C., Shao, L., ve Katz, J. H. (2012). The Effect of Culture on The Curvilinear Relationship Between Performance and Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(1), 46-62.
  • To, C., Leslie, L. M., Torelli, C. J., ve Stoner, J. L. (2020). Culture and Social Hierarchy: Collectivism as A Driver of The Relationship Between Power and Status. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 157, 159-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.12.006
  • Tost, L. P., Gino, F., ve Larrick, R. P. (2012). Power, Competitiveness, and Advice Taking: Why The Powerful Don’t Listen. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117(1), 53-65.
  • Xie, J. L., Roy, J., ve Chen, Z. (2006). Cultural and Individual Differences in Self-Rating Behavior: An Extension and Refinement of The Cultural Relativity Hypothesis. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 27, 341-364.
  • Yoon, D. J., ve Farmer, S. M. (2018). Power that Builds Others and Power that Breaks: Effects of Power and Humility on Altruism and Incivility in Female Employees. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 152(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1393381

Kültürel Farklılıklar Açısından Güç ve Hoşgörü Hatası: Değerler ve Normlar Çerçevesinde Kavramsal Bir Çalışma

Year 2021, , 246 - 258, 31.03.2021
https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.883229

Abstract

Performans değerlendirme çalışanlar hakkındaki yönetimsel ve gelişimsel kararların temelini oluşturan ve örgütlerin etkinlik ve verimliliğini etkileyen en önemli uygulamalardan biridir. Ancak değerlendirme yargısal bir süreç olduğu için hatalar kaçınılmazdır. Örgütlerin sürdürülebilir rekabetçilikleri açısından değerlendiricilerin hataya düşme eğilimlerini etkileyen faktörlerin neler olduğunun tespit edilerek hatanın kaynağının ortaya konulması gerekmektedir. Değişen iş dünyasının bir gerçeği olarak işgücü çeşitliliğinin günden güne artması ile birlikte çalışanların davranışlarının nedenselliğini açıklamada “kültür” temel bir değişken olarak öne çıkmıştır. Buradan hareketle bu çalışmada hoşgörü hatası kültürel farklılıklar çerçevesinde karşılaştırmalı olarak ele alınmıştır. Değerlendiricilerin örgütsel hiyerarşinin farklı kademelerinde yer almalarının ortaya çıkarmış olduğu farklı güç düzeyleri nedeniyle “güç” kavramı da araştırmanın diğer bir temel değişkeni olarak incelenmiştir. Diğer çalışmalardan farklı olarak bu çalışmada davranışı şekillendiren kültürel farklılıklar değer yaklaşımının yanı sıra normlar bağlamında da ele alınmıştır. Diğer bir ifade ile hoşgörü hatası ve değerlendiriciler arası güç düzeyi farklılıkları ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkiler, kültür temelinde değerler ve normlar perspektifinden kavramsal olarak incelenmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda hoşgörü hatasına düşme eğiliminin kültürel özelliklere, değer ve normlara göre değişkenlik gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Aynı zamanda değerlendiricilerin sahip oldukları güç düzeyine göre hoşgörü hatasına düşme eğilimlerinin de farklılık gösterdiği ortaya konulmuştur. Son olarak farklı kültürel değerlere ve normlara sahip değerlendiricilerin güç düzeyi farklılıklarının hoşgörü hatasına düşme eğilimlerini etkilediği bulunmuştur.

References

  • Antonioni, D., ve Heejoon, P. (2001). The Relationship between Rater Affect and Three Sources of 360-Degree Feedback Ratings. Journal of Management, 27, 479-495.
  • Arvey, R. D., ve Murphy, K. R. (1998). Performance Evaluation in Work Settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141-168.
  • Atwater, L., Wang, M., Smither, J. W., ve Fleenor, J. W. (2009). Are Cultural Characteristics Associated with The Relationship between Self and Others’ Ratings of Leadership?. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 876-886.
  • Bernardin, H. J., Tyler, C. L., ve Villanova, P. (2009). Rating Level and Accuracy as A Function of Rater Personality. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 17 (3), 300-310.
  • Bernardin, H. J., Villanova, P., ve Cooke, D. (2000). Conscientiousness and Agreeableness as Predictors of Rating Leniency. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 232-236.
  • Cascio, W. F., ve Bailey, E. (1995). International Human Resource Management: The State of Research and Practice. Shenkar, O. (Der.), Global Perspectives of Human Resource Management. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Chiang, F. F. T., ve Birtch, T. A. (2010). Appraising Performance across Borders: An Empirical Examination of The Purposes and Practices of Performance Appraisal in A Multi-Country Context. Journal of Management Studies, 47(7), 1365-1393.
  • Cho, I., ve Payne, S. C. (2016). Other Important Questions: When, How, and Why Do Cultural Values Influence Performance Management? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 9(2), 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.23
  • Davila, A., ve Elvira, M. M. (2007). Psychological Contracts and Performance Management in Mexico. International Journal of Manpower, 28(5), 384-402.
  • Earley, P. C., Gibson, C. B., ve Chen, C. C. (1999). “How Did I Do?” versus “How Did We Do?” Cultural Contrasts of Performance Feedback Use and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(5), 594-619.
  • Farh, J., Dobbins, G. H., ve Cheng, B. (1991). Cultural Relativity in Action: A Comparison of Self Ratings Made by Chinese and U.S. Workers. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 129-147.
  • Ferguson, A. J., Ormiston, M. E., ve Moon, H. (2010). From Approach to Inhibition: The Influence of Power on Responses to Poor Performers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 305-320. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018376
  • Fischer, R. (2006). Congruence and Functions of Personal and Cultural Values: Do My Values Reflect My Culture’s Values?. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(11), 1419-1431.
  • Fischer, R., Ferreira, M. C., Assmar, E., Redford, P., Harb, C., Glazer, S., Cheng, B., Jiang, D., Wong, C. C., Kumar, N., Kärtner, J., Hofer, J., ve Achoui, M. (2009). Individualism-Collectivism as Descriptive Norms: Development of A Subjective Norm Approach to Culture Measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(2), 187-213.
  • Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., ve Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The Cultural Matrix of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
  • Gelfand, M. J., ve Harrington, J. R. (2015). The Motivational Force of Descriptive Norms: For Whom and When Are Descriptive Norms Most Predictive of Behavior? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(10), 1273-1278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115600796
  • Haines, V. Y., ve St-Onge, S. (2012). Performance Management Effectiveness: Practices or Context?. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(6), 1158-1175.
  • Hauenstein, N. M. A. (1992). An Information-Processing Approach to Leniency in Performance Judgments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(4), 485-493.
  • Heidemeier, H., ve Moser, K. (2009). Self–Other Agreement in Job Performance Ratings: A Meta-Analytic Test of A Process Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 353-370.
  • Hofstede, G. (1981). Culture and Organizations. International Studies of Management and Organization, 10(4), 15-41.
  • Kane, J. S., Bernardin, J. H., Villanova, P., ve Peyrefitte, J. (1995). Stability of Rater Leniency: Three studies. Academy of Management Journal, 38(4), 1036-1051.
  • Keleş, S., ve Aycan, Z. (2011). The Relationship of Managerial Values and Assumptions with Performance Management in Turkey: Understanding within Culture Variability. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(15), 3080-3096.
  • Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., ve Anderson, C. (2003). Power, Approach, and Inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2), 265-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265
  • Khilji, E. S. (2003). “To Adapt or Not to Adapt” Exploring The Role of National Culture in HRM - A Study of Pakistan. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 3(1), 109-132.
  • Klehe, U. C., ve Anderson, N. (2007). The Moderating Influence of Personality and Culture on Social Loafing in Typical Versus Maximum Performance Situations. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(2), 250-262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2007.00385.x
  • Korsgaard, M. A., Meglino, B. M., ve Scott, W. L. (2004). The Effect of Other Orientation on Self-Supervisor Rating Agreement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(7), 873-891.
  • Leary, M. R. (1983). A Brief Version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 371–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283093007
  • Lee, F., ve Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Is It Lonely At The Top?: The Independence and Interdependence of Power Holders. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 43-91.
  • Milliman, J., Nason, S., Gallagher, E., Huo, P., Von Glinow, M. A., ve Lowe, K. B. (1998). The Impact of National Culture on Human Resource Management Practices: The Case of Performance Appraisal. Advances in International Comparative Management, 12, 157-183.
  • Mishra, V., ve Roch, S. G. (2017). Do All Raters Value Task, Citizenship, and Counterproductive Behaviors Equally: An Investigation of Cultural Values and Performance Evaluations. Human Performance, 30(4), 193-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2017.1357556
  • Morin, D., ve Renaud, S. (2000). The Effect of Organizational Context on The Motivation of Raters to Produce Lenient Appraisals. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 66(4), 637-654.
  • Ng, K., Koh, C., Ang, S., Kennedy, J. C., ve Chan, K. (2011). Rating Leniency and Halo in Multisource Feedback Ratings: Testing Cultural Assumptions of Power Distance and Individualism-Collectivism. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96 (5), 1033-1044.
  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., ve Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3-72.
  • Peretz, H., ve Fried, Y. (2012). National Cultures, Performance Appraisal Practices and Organizational Absenteeism and Turnover: A Study across 21 Countries. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2), 448-459.
  • Randall, R., ve Sharples, D. (2012). The Impact of Rater Agreeableness and Rating Context on The Evaluation of Poor Performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85, 42-59.
  • Scherer, K. R., ve Brosch, T. (2009). Culture-Specific Appraisal Biases Contribute to Emotion Dispositions. European Journal of Personality, 23, 265-288.
  • Schmid, P. C., ve Schmid Mast, M. (2013). Power Increases Performance in A Social Evaluation Situation as A Result of Decreased Stress Responses. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(3), 201-211. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1937
  • Schmid Mast, M., Khademi, M., ve Palese, T. (2020). Power and Social Information Processing. Current Opinion in Psychology, 33, 42-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.017
  • Shteynberg, G., Gelfand, M. J., ve Kibum, K. (2009). Peering into The “Magnum Mysterium” of Culture: The Explanatory Power of Descriptive Norms. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(1), 46-69.
  • Smith, P. B. (2004). Acquiescent Response Bias as An Aspect of Cultural Communication Style. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(1), 50-61.
  • Smith, P. B., ve Bond, M. H. (2019). Cultures and Persons: Characterizing National and Other Types of Cultural Difference Can Also Aid Our Understanding and Prediction of Individual Variability. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02689
  • Sturman, M. C., Shao, L., ve Katz, J. H. (2012). The Effect of Culture on The Curvilinear Relationship Between Performance and Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(1), 46-62.
  • To, C., Leslie, L. M., Torelli, C. J., ve Stoner, J. L. (2020). Culture and Social Hierarchy: Collectivism as A Driver of The Relationship Between Power and Status. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 157, 159-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.12.006
  • Tost, L. P., Gino, F., ve Larrick, R. P. (2012). Power, Competitiveness, and Advice Taking: Why The Powerful Don’t Listen. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117(1), 53-65.
  • Xie, J. L., Roy, J., ve Chen, Z. (2006). Cultural and Individual Differences in Self-Rating Behavior: An Extension and Refinement of The Cultural Relativity Hypothesis. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 27, 341-364.
  • Yoon, D. J., ve Farmer, S. M. (2018). Power that Builds Others and Power that Breaks: Effects of Power and Humility on Altruism and Incivility in Female Employees. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 152(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2017.1393381
There are 46 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Adem Baltacı 0000-0001-8474-2164

Publication Date March 31, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021

Cite

APA Baltacı, A. (2021). Kültürel Farklılıklar Açısından Güç ve Hoşgörü Hatası: Değerler ve Normlar Çerçevesinde Kavramsal Bir Çalışma. Marmara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(1), 246-258. https://doi.org/10.14782/marmarasbd.883229