Historical Evolution of Criticism of The Prophet and Its Reflections on the Modern Age
Yıl 2024,
, 101 - 120, 30.06.2024
Sıbğetullah Korhan
,
Ahmet Süruri
Öz
In the modern era, Christian apologists and skeptics of prophethood have placed the Islamic prophet at the center of their criticisms. While the Western world approaches the founders of non-semitic religions such as Buddha, Zoroaster, and Confucius with respect, they have chosen an approach that is fundamentally hostility to Prophet Muḥammad, leading to the construction of an identity based on this hostility. The reason behind this is that Islam is perceived as a threat. Christian polemicists have developed arguments critiquing the prophethood of Prophet Muḥammad to prevent their co-religionists from embracing Islam. When the origins of these criticisms are investigated, it is revealed that many can be traced back to a treatise titled "On Heresis" the second section of the work The Fount of Knowledge, written by John of Damascus (d. 749 [?]), a church father and bureaucrat who lived in the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus in the 8th century. These criticisms, often containing defamation and hate speech, have been reiterated, leading to a negative perception of Prophet Muḥammad and fueling Islamophobia. This study will address some of these criticisms along with the historical background, providing a brief evaluation of common critiques.
Etik Beyan
This article is extracted from my doctorate dissertation entitled “MODERN CRITICISMS OF THE PROPHET’S PROPHETHOOD” (PhD Dissertation, Ibn Haldun University, Istanbul/Turkey, 2023).
Kaynakça
- Aksu, Güngör. “Benî Kurayza Yahudilerinin Cezalandırılması.” Siyer Araştırmaları Dergisi 6 (2019), 79–98.
- Alphandéry, Paul Daniel. “Mahomet-Antichrist dans le Moyen Âge Latin.” Mélanges Hartwig Derenbourg. 261–277. Paris: Ernest Leroux Editeur, 1909.
- Âlûsî, Nu‘mân b. Mahmûd el-. El-Cevâbü’l-Fesîḥ Limâ Leffeḳahû ʿAbdülmesîḥ. ed. Ahmed Hicazî es-Sakâ. Kahire: Darü’l-Beyani’l-Garbi, 1987.
- Aquinas, St. Thomas. Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Contra Gentiles: A Guide and Commentary. trans. Brian Davies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time. London: Harper Press, 2006.
- Azimli, Mehmet. “Hz. Aişe’nin Evlilik Yaşı Tartışmalarında Savunmacı Tarihçiliğin Çıkmazı.” İslâmî Araştırmalar Dergisi 1/16 (2003), 28–37.
- Balbay, Muhammed. Garanik Kıssası ve Oryantalist Yaklaşımlar. Şanlıurfa: Harran Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2007.
- Buhârî, Ebu Abdullah Muhammed b. İbrahim el-. El-Câmi’u’s-Sahîh (Sahîh-i Buhârî). ed. Mustafa Deyb el-Boğa. Dımaşk: Dâru İbn Kesir, 1993.
- Classen, Albrecht (ed.). East Meets West in The Middle Ages And Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter, 2013.
- Classeni, Ioannis. Theophanis Chronograph. Bonnae: Impensis ED. Weberi, 1839.
- Collins, Christopher. Homeland Mythology: Biblical Narratives in American Culture. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007.
- Coope, Jessica A. The Martyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
- Cooperman, Alan. “Anti-Muslim Remarks Stir Tempest.” Washington Post (June 20, 2002). https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/06/20/anti-muslim-remarks-stir-tempest/4577462f-cd70-458c-9fef-133b5143e144/
- Curtis, Michael. Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Repr., 1980.
- Demirci, Abdurrahman. “Batıda Yayımlanan Ansiklopedilerde Hz. Muhammed İmajı (Risaletin Mekke Dönemi).” Journal of Turkish Studies 13/Volume 13 Issue 2 (January 1, 2018), 331–354.
https://doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.13030
- Donner, Fred M. “Muhammad’s Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca: A Reassessment.” The Muslim World 69/4 (October 1979), 229–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1979.tb03388.x
- Ehlert, Trude. “Muhammed.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. ed. C.E. Bosworth et al. 7/360–387. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
- Ekiz, Necmettin Salih. Oryantalist Literatürde Kur’an’ın Yahudi Kökenli Olduğu İddiası: Abraham Geiger Örneği. İstanbul: 29 Mayıs Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2021.
- Esîr, İzzüddîn Alî b. Muhammed ibnü’l-. El-Kâmil Fi’t-Târîh. ed. Ömer Abdüsselam Tedmüri. Beyrut: Dârü’l-Kitabi’l-Arabi, 1997.
- Fatiş, Emrullah. Kelam Alan Bilgisi ve Problemleri. İstanbul: Eğitim Yayınevi, 2021.
- Freemo, Frank R. “A Differential Diagnosis of the Inspirational Spells of Muhammad the Prophet of Islam.” Journal of Epilepsia 17/4 (December 1976), 423–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1976.tb04454.x
- Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Books, 1999.
- Goddard, Hugh. “The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215).” A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Chicago: New Amsterdam Books, 3rd Ed., 2000.
- Gökbel, Abdullah Rıdvan. Erken İslamî Dönemde Hıristiyanların Kur’an Çalışmaları. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2019.
- Görgün, Hilal. “Muhammed.” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 30/476–478. İstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2005. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muhammed#18
- Griffith, Sidney H. “Theodore Abū Qurrah’s Arabic Tract on the Christian Practice of Venerating Images.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 105/1 (1985), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.2307/601539
- Hart, Michael H. The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. Secausus, N.J: Carol Pub. Group, Rev. ed., 1992.
- Hıdır, Özcan. Batı’da Hz. Muhammed İmajı. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2020.
- John of Damascus. “The Fount of Knowledge.” Saint John of Damascus Writings. ed. Hermigild Dressler et al. 3–160. The Fathers of the Church: A New Translation. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1958.
- Korkut, Şenol. “Batı Düşüncesinde İslam ve Hz. Muhammed (s.a.s.) İmajı (Genel Bir Okuma).” Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 34 (2014), 5–54. https://doi.org/10.15370/muifd.33615
Kritzeck, James. Peter the Venerable and Islam. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1964.
- Margoliouth, David Samuel. Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2003.
- Margoliouth, David Samuel. “Muhammad.” Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings. Vol. 8. New York: Charles Scrinber’s Sons, 1916.
- Meriç, Altay Can. Muhtelif 1 - İslam’a Yönelik İtirazlar ve Cevaplar. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2023.
- Meriç, Altay Can. Peygamberliğin İspatı: Haber Delili. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2022.
- Metin, İsmail. “Tiyatro, Karikatür ve Film Provokasyonları Bağlamında Fransız Basınında İslam ve Hz. Muhammed Imajı.” Bozok Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 4/4 (2013), 91–104.
- Müslim b. el-Haccâc, Ebü’l-Hüseyn. El-Câmiʿu’s-Sahîh (Sahîh-i Müslim). ed. Ahmet b. Rafet Karahisarlı et al. İstanbul: Dârü’t-Tabaati’l-Amire, 1916.
- Nesâî, Ebu Abdurrahman Ahmed en-. Es-Sünenü’s-Suğra (Sünenü’n-Nesâi). ed. Abdülfettah Ebu Gudde. Halep: Mektebetü’l-Metbuati’l-İslamiyye, 1986.
- Oussani, Gabriel. “Mohammed and Mohammedanism.” The Catholic Encyclopedia, Knights Of Columbus Special Edition. 10/424–428. New York: The Encyclopedia Press, 1913.
- Quinn, Frederick. “The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600).” The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. 17–54. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Ronart, Stephen. “Muhammad.” Concise Encyclopaedia of Arabic Civilization: The Arab East. 381–384. New York: Frederic A. Praeger Publishers, 1959.
- Sbaihat, Ahlam. “Stereotypes Associated with Prototypes of the Prophet of Islam’s Name till the 19th Century.” Jordan Journal of Modern Languages and Literature 7/1 (2015), 21–38.
- Sell, Canon. The Historical Development of the Quran. Londra: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1909.
- Setton, Kenneth M. Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom. Philadelphia, Pa: American Philosophical Society, 1992.
- Southern, Richard W. Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962.
- Stubbe, Henry. An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, and a Vindication of Mahomet and His Religion from the Calumnies of the Christians. London: Luzac & Co., 1911.
- Tolan, John Victor. Faces of Muhammad: Western Perceptions of the Prophet of Islam from the Middle Ages to Today. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2019.
- Turner, Colin. Islam: The Basics. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
- Tuzcu, Recep. “İslamofobi Oluşturmada Hz. Peygamber’e Yapılan Atıflar.” İlahiyat Akademi Dergisi 6 (2017), 113–156.
- Voorhis, John W. “John of Damascus on the Moslem Heresy.” The Muslim World 24/4 (October 1934), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1934.tb00319.x
- Watt, William Montgomery. “Â’isha Bint Abi Bakr.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. ed. P. J. Bearman et al. 1/307–308. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
- Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
- Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammed at Medina. Londra: The Clarendon Press, 1956.
- Wilders, Geert. “Muhammad Was a Paedophile and Mass Murderer.” Yandex. Accessed March 13, 2022.
https://yandex.com.tr/video/preview/?text=Muhammad%20was%20a%20pedophile%3B%20press%20conference%20with%20Geert%20Wilders%22&path=yandex_search&parent-reqid=1647184102350956-12546532932852823502-man1-2791-176-man-l7-balancer-8080-BAL-9650&from_type=v4thumbs&filmId=15518089298277697944
- Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki. “Kindî, Abdülmesîh b. İshâk.” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 26/38–39. Ankara: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2006. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kindi-abdulmesih-b-ishak
“Comparing Jesus And Muhammad.” ed. Jay Smith. Islam & Muslims. Archive.org. https://archive.org/details/comparing-jesus-and-muhammad-jay-smith
Hz. Peygamber’e Yönelik Eleştirilerin Tarihsel Evrimi ve Modern Çağa Yansımaları
Yıl 2024,
, 101 - 120, 30.06.2024
Sıbğetullah Korhan
,
Ahmet Süruri
Öz
Modern çağda Hristiyan apolojetikler ve nübüvvet inkarcıları, İslâm peygamberini eleştirilerinin merkezine yerleştirmişlerdir. Batı dünyası Buda, Zerdüşt ve Konfüçyüs gibi semâvî kabul edilmeyen din kurucularına bile saygılı yaklaşırken Hz. Peygamber’e düşmanlığı esas alan bir yaklaşımı tercih etmiş ve bunun üzerine bir kimlik inşası yoluna gitmişlerdir. Bunun nedeni İslâm’ın tehdit olarak algılanmasıdır. Hristiyan polemistler kendi dindaşlarının İslâm’a yönelmesinin önüne geçmek için Hz. Peygamber’in nübüvvetini tenkit eden bazı argümanlar geliştirmişlerdir. Eleştirilerin kökenleri araştırıldığında birçoğunun 8. yüzyılda Şam Emevî hilafetinde yaşamış kilise babası ve bürokrat Yuhanna ed-Dımaşkî’nin (öl. 749 [?]) kaleme aldığı The Fount of Knowledge adlı eserinin ikinci Bölümünü teşkil eden "On Heresis" başlıklı bir risaleye dayandığı görülmektedir. Genellikle karalama ve nefret söylemi içeren bu eleştiriler zaman içinde tekrar edilerek Hz. Peygamber’e yönelik olumsuz bir algının ortaya çıkmasına sebebiyet vermiş ve İslamofobiyi beslemiştir. Bu çalışmada eleştirilerin tarihsel arka planı ile birlikte bazı yaygın eleştiriler ele alınacak ve kısa bir değerlendirmeye tabi tutulacaktır.
Etik Beyan
Bu çalışma Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ahmet SÜRURİ danışmanlığında Eylül 2023 tarihinde tamamladığım “HZ. PEYGAMBER’İN NÜBÜVVETİNE YÖNELİK MODERN ELEŞTİRİLERİN TAHLİLİ” (İbn Haldun Universitesi, İstanbul, 2023) başlıklı doktora tezi esas alınarak hazırlanmıştır.
Kaynakça
- Aksu, Güngör. “Benî Kurayza Yahudilerinin Cezalandırılması.” Siyer Araştırmaları Dergisi 6 (2019), 79–98.
- Alphandéry, Paul Daniel. “Mahomet-Antichrist dans le Moyen Âge Latin.” Mélanges Hartwig Derenbourg. 261–277. Paris: Ernest Leroux Editeur, 1909.
- Âlûsî, Nu‘mân b. Mahmûd el-. El-Cevâbü’l-Fesîḥ Limâ Leffeḳahû ʿAbdülmesîḥ. ed. Ahmed Hicazî es-Sakâ. Kahire: Darü’l-Beyani’l-Garbi, 1987.
- Aquinas, St. Thomas. Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Contra Gentiles: A Guide and Commentary. trans. Brian Davies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time. London: Harper Press, 2006.
- Azimli, Mehmet. “Hz. Aişe’nin Evlilik Yaşı Tartışmalarında Savunmacı Tarihçiliğin Çıkmazı.” İslâmî Araştırmalar Dergisi 1/16 (2003), 28–37.
- Balbay, Muhammed. Garanik Kıssası ve Oryantalist Yaklaşımlar. Şanlıurfa: Harran Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2007.
- Buhârî, Ebu Abdullah Muhammed b. İbrahim el-. El-Câmi’u’s-Sahîh (Sahîh-i Buhârî). ed. Mustafa Deyb el-Boğa. Dımaşk: Dâru İbn Kesir, 1993.
- Classen, Albrecht (ed.). East Meets West in The Middle Ages And Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World. Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter, 2013.
- Classeni, Ioannis. Theophanis Chronograph. Bonnae: Impensis ED. Weberi, 1839.
- Collins, Christopher. Homeland Mythology: Biblical Narratives in American Culture. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007.
- Coope, Jessica A. The Martyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
- Cooperman, Alan. “Anti-Muslim Remarks Stir Tempest.” Washington Post (June 20, 2002). https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2002/06/20/anti-muslim-remarks-stir-tempest/4577462f-cd70-458c-9fef-133b5143e144/
- Curtis, Michael. Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The Making of an Image. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Repr., 1980.
- Demirci, Abdurrahman. “Batıda Yayımlanan Ansiklopedilerde Hz. Muhammed İmajı (Risaletin Mekke Dönemi).” Journal of Turkish Studies 13/Volume 13 Issue 2 (January 1, 2018), 331–354.
https://doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.13030
- Donner, Fred M. “Muhammad’s Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca: A Reassessment.” The Muslim World 69/4 (October 1979), 229–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1979.tb03388.x
- Ehlert, Trude. “Muhammed.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. ed. C.E. Bosworth et al. 7/360–387. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
- Ekiz, Necmettin Salih. Oryantalist Literatürde Kur’an’ın Yahudi Kökenli Olduğu İddiası: Abraham Geiger Örneği. İstanbul: 29 Mayıs Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2021.
- Esîr, İzzüddîn Alî b. Muhammed ibnü’l-. El-Kâmil Fi’t-Târîh. ed. Ömer Abdüsselam Tedmüri. Beyrut: Dârü’l-Kitabi’l-Arabi, 1997.
- Fatiş, Emrullah. Kelam Alan Bilgisi ve Problemleri. İstanbul: Eğitim Yayınevi, 2021.
- Freemo, Frank R. “A Differential Diagnosis of the Inspirational Spells of Muhammad the Prophet of Islam.” Journal of Epilepsia 17/4 (December 1976), 423–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1976.tb04454.x
- Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Books, 1999.
- Goddard, Hugh. “The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215).” A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Chicago: New Amsterdam Books, 3rd Ed., 2000.
- Gökbel, Abdullah Rıdvan. Erken İslamî Dönemde Hıristiyanların Kur’an Çalışmaları. İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2019.
- Görgün, Hilal. “Muhammed.” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 30/476–478. İstanbul: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2005. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muhammed#18
- Griffith, Sidney H. “Theodore Abū Qurrah’s Arabic Tract on the Christian Practice of Venerating Images.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 105/1 (1985), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.2307/601539
- Hart, Michael H. The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. Secausus, N.J: Carol Pub. Group, Rev. ed., 1992.
- Hıdır, Özcan. Batı’da Hz. Muhammed İmajı. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2020.
- John of Damascus. “The Fount of Knowledge.” Saint John of Damascus Writings. ed. Hermigild Dressler et al. 3–160. The Fathers of the Church: A New Translation. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1958.
- Korkut, Şenol. “Batı Düşüncesinde İslam ve Hz. Muhammed (s.a.s.) İmajı (Genel Bir Okuma).” Marmara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 34 (2014), 5–54. https://doi.org/10.15370/muifd.33615
Kritzeck, James. Peter the Venerable and Islam. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1964.
- Margoliouth, David Samuel. Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2003.
- Margoliouth, David Samuel. “Muhammad.” Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings. Vol. 8. New York: Charles Scrinber’s Sons, 1916.
- Meriç, Altay Can. Muhtelif 1 - İslam’a Yönelik İtirazlar ve Cevaplar. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2023.
- Meriç, Altay Can. Peygamberliğin İspatı: Haber Delili. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 2022.
- Metin, İsmail. “Tiyatro, Karikatür ve Film Provokasyonları Bağlamında Fransız Basınında İslam ve Hz. Muhammed Imajı.” Bozok Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 4/4 (2013), 91–104.
- Müslim b. el-Haccâc, Ebü’l-Hüseyn. El-Câmiʿu’s-Sahîh (Sahîh-i Müslim). ed. Ahmet b. Rafet Karahisarlı et al. İstanbul: Dârü’t-Tabaati’l-Amire, 1916.
- Nesâî, Ebu Abdurrahman Ahmed en-. Es-Sünenü’s-Suğra (Sünenü’n-Nesâi). ed. Abdülfettah Ebu Gudde. Halep: Mektebetü’l-Metbuati’l-İslamiyye, 1986.
- Oussani, Gabriel. “Mohammed and Mohammedanism.” The Catholic Encyclopedia, Knights Of Columbus Special Edition. 10/424–428. New York: The Encyclopedia Press, 1913.
- Quinn, Frederick. “The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600).” The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. 17–54. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Ronart, Stephen. “Muhammad.” Concise Encyclopaedia of Arabic Civilization: The Arab East. 381–384. New York: Frederic A. Praeger Publishers, 1959.
- Sbaihat, Ahlam. “Stereotypes Associated with Prototypes of the Prophet of Islam’s Name till the 19th Century.” Jordan Journal of Modern Languages and Literature 7/1 (2015), 21–38.
- Sell, Canon. The Historical Development of the Quran. Londra: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1909.
- Setton, Kenneth M. Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom. Philadelphia, Pa: American Philosophical Society, 1992.
- Southern, Richard W. Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962.
- Stubbe, Henry. An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, and a Vindication of Mahomet and His Religion from the Calumnies of the Christians. London: Luzac & Co., 1911.
- Tolan, John Victor. Faces of Muhammad: Western Perceptions of the Prophet of Islam from the Middle Ages to Today. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2019.
- Turner, Colin. Islam: The Basics. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.
- Tuzcu, Recep. “İslamofobi Oluşturmada Hz. Peygamber’e Yapılan Atıflar.” İlahiyat Akademi Dergisi 6 (2017), 113–156.
- Voorhis, John W. “John of Damascus on the Moslem Heresy.” The Muslim World 24/4 (October 1934), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1934.tb00319.x
- Watt, William Montgomery. “Â’isha Bint Abi Bakr.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. ed. P. J. Bearman et al. 1/307–308. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
- Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
- Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammed at Medina. Londra: The Clarendon Press, 1956.
- Wilders, Geert. “Muhammad Was a Paedophile and Mass Murderer.” Yandex. Accessed March 13, 2022.
https://yandex.com.tr/video/preview/?text=Muhammad%20was%20a%20pedophile%3B%20press%20conference%20with%20Geert%20Wilders%22&path=yandex_search&parent-reqid=1647184102350956-12546532932852823502-man1-2791-176-man-l7-balancer-8080-BAL-9650&from_type=v4thumbs&filmId=15518089298277697944
- Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki. “Kindî, Abdülmesîh b. İshâk.” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 26/38–39. Ankara: TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2006. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kindi-abdulmesih-b-ishak
“Comparing Jesus And Muhammad.” ed. Jay Smith. Islam & Muslims. Archive.org. https://archive.org/details/comparing-jesus-and-muhammad-jay-smith