Psychotropic medications affecting biological rhythm

Abstract

There are many biological rhythms with various time oscillations regulating biological functions in living organisms, mammalians, and humans. Biological rhythms such as circadian, ultradian, and infradian or with longer cycles are independent biological organizations rather than dependent to the external stimulus. Although there is a sustained biological rhythmicity, psychiatric disorders and psychotropic drugs can change this process. The effects of psychotropics on biological rhythmicity can occur via possible neurotransmitter and neuromediator mechanisms within a relatively short time period on the other hand hormonal or genetic mechanisms can impact long term outcome. So far several studies suggested that biological rhythm disturbances play an important role in etiology and course of mood disorders’. Assessment of the possible effects of psychopharmacological agents on biological rhythm is important during the course of mood disorders.

Keywords

• -

Biyolojik ritmi etkileyen psikotrop ilaçlar

Öz

Birçok canlı organizmada, omurgalı ve memeli canlıda olduğu gibi insanda da biyolojik işlevler çeşitli aralıklarla salınan ritimlerle yürür. Sirkadyen, ultradien ve infradian ya da daha uzun aralıklarla salınan iç ritimlerimiz kendi iç düzenlerini her şartta devam ettiren, bağımsız biyolojik organizasyonlardır. Biyolojik olarak kendiliğinden işleyen, istikrarlı bir yol varsa da, gerek psikiyatrik hastalıklar ve gerekse de psikotrop ilaçlar bu iç ritimleri değiştirebilir. Psikotrop ilaçlar, etki düzeneklerindeki nörotransmmitter ya da nöromediatörler vasıtasıyla doğrudan veya daha uzun vadede hormonal ya da genetik değişikliklere neden olarak da biyolojik ritimler üzerine etkili olabilir. Biyolojik ritim düzensizliklerinin duygudurum bozuklukları açısından hem neden hem de sonuç olarak önemine dikkat çeken birçok çalışma vardır. Duygudurum bozukluklarının takip ve tedavisinde psikofarmakolojik ajanların biyolojik ritimlere olan muhtemel etkisi de değerlendirilmesi önemlidir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• kronobiyotikler, psikotrop ilaçlar, biyolojik ritim

References

1. Kalsbeek A, Yi CX, Cailotto C, la Fleur SE, Fliers E, Buijs RM. Mammalian clock output mechanisms. Essays Biochem 2011; 30:49:137-15
2. Klein DC. Moore RY. Reppert, SM. editors. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Mind’s Clock. Oxford University Press; New York: 1991.
3. Reuss S. Components and connections of the circadian timing system in mammals. Cell Tissue Res 1996; 285:353-378.
4. Turek FW. Circadian neural rhythms in mammals. Annu Rev Physiol 1985; 47:49-64.
5. Schulz P, Steimer T. Neurobiology of circadian systems. CNS Drugs 2009;23:3-13.
6. Hofman MA. The brain’s calendar: neural mechanisms of seasonal timing. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2004; 79: 61-77.
7. Hu K, Scheer FAJL, Ivanov PC. The suprachiasmatic nucleus functions beyond circadian rhythm generation. Neuroscience 2007;149:508-517.
8. Ebisawa T. Circadian rhythms in the CNS and peripheral clock disorders: human sleep disorders and clock genes. J Pharmacol Sci 2007; 103:150-154.

9. Toh KL. Basic science review on circadian rhythm biology and circadian sleep disorders. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2008; 37:662668.
10. Young ME, Bray MS. Potential role for peripheral circadian clock dyssynchrony in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular dysfunction. Sleep Med 2007; 8:656-667.
11. Monteleone P, Maj M. The circadian basis of mood disorders: recent developments and treatment implications. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 18:701-711.
12. Mizukawa R, Ishiguro S, Takada H, Kishimoto A, Ogura C, Hazama H. Long-term observation of a manic-depressive patient with rapid cycles. Biol Psychiatry 1991;29:671-678.
13. Saeed SA, Bruce TJ. Seasonal affective disorders. Am Fam Physician 1998; 57:1340-1346, 1351-1352.
14. Magnusson A, Partonen T. The diagnosis, symptomatology, and epidemiology of seasonal affective disorder. CNS Spectr 2005; 10:625-634.
15. Gordijn MC, Beersma DG, Bouhuys AL, Reinink E, Van den Hoofdakker RH. A longitudinal study of diurnal mood variation in depression; characteristics and significance. J Affect Disord 1994; 31:261-273.
16. Preti A, Miotto P, De Coppi M. Season and suicide: recent findings from Italy. Crisis 2000; 21:59-70.
17. Peeters F, Nicolson NA, Berkhof J. Levels and variability of daily life cortisol secretion in major depression. Psychiatry Res 2004; 126:1-13.
18. Karadottir R, Axelsson J. Melatonin secretion in SAD patients and healthy subjects matched with respect to age and sex. Int J Circumpolar Health 2001; 60:548-551.
19. Rabe-Jablonska J, Szymanska A. Diurnal profile of melatonin secretion in the acute phase of major depression and in remission. Med Sci Monit 2001; 7:946-952.
20. Gulec M, Selvi Y, Boysan M, Aydin A, Besiroglu L, Agargun MY. Ongoing or re-emerging subjective insomnia symptoms after full/ partial remission or recovery of major depressive disorder mainly with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of relapse or recurrence: a 52-week follow-up study. J Affect Disord 2011;134 257-265. 175
21. Salvatore P, Ghidini S, Zita G, De Panfilis C, Lambertino S, Maggini C, Baldessarini RJ. Circadian activity rhythm abnormalities in ill and recovered bipolar I disorder patients. Bipolar Disord 2008; 10:256-265.
22. Cohrs S. Sleep disturbances in patients with schizophrenia: impact and effect of antipsychotics. CNS Drugs 2008;22:939-962.
23. Nagayama H. Influences of Biological Rhythms on the Effects of Psychotropic Drugs Psychosomatic Medicine 1999; 61:618-629.
24. Ohdo S. Chronopharmacology Focused on Biological Clock. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2007; 22:3-14.
25. Ohdo S. Chronotherapeutic strategy: Rhythm monitoring, manipulation and disruption. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2010; 62:859875.
26. Fattovich G, Giustina G, Favarato S, Ruol A. A survey of adverse events in 11241 patients with chronic viral hepatitis treated with alfa interferon. J Hepatol 1996; 24: 8-47.
27. Janssen HLA , Brouwer JT, Mast RC, Schalm SW. Suicide associated with alfa-interferon therapy for chronic viral hepatitis. J Hepatol 1994; 21: 41-243.
28. Bocci V. Distribution catabolism and pharmacokinetics of interferons, in: N.B. Finter, R. Oldham (editors), Interferon, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1985:47-72.
29. Scott GM, Ward RJ, Wright DJ, Robinson JA, Onwubalili JK, Gauci CL. Effects of cloned interferon 2 in normal volunteers: febrile reactions and changes in circulating corticosteroids and trace metals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother1983; 23:589-592.
30. Nagayama H, Nagano K, Ikezaki A, Tashiro T. Double-blind study of the chronopharmacotherapy of depression. Chronobiol Int1991;8:203-209.
31. Ohdo S. Chronopharmaceutics: pharmaceutics focused on biological rhythm. Biol Pharm Bull 2010;33:159-167. 32. Arendt J, Skene D J. Melatonin as a chronobiotic. Sleep Med Rev 2005; 9, 25-39.
32. Bunney WE, Bunney BG. Molecular clock genes in man and lower animals: possible implications for circadian abnormalities in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000; 22:335-345.
33. Bunney JN, Potkin SG. Circadian abnormalities, molecular clock genes and chronobiological treatments in depression. Br Med Bull 2008;86:23-32.
34. Benedetti F, Dallaspezia S, Fulgosi MC, Lorenzi C, Serretti A, Barbini B, Colombo C, Smeraldi E. Actimetric evidence that CLOCK 3111 T/C SNP influences sleep and activity patterns in patients affected by bipolar depression. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144:631-635.
35. Gouin JP, Connors J, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R, Malarkey WB, Atkinson C, Beversdorf D, Quan N Altered expression of circadian rhythm genes among individuals with a history of depression. J Affect Disord 2010; 126:161-166.
36. Lavebratt C, Sjöholm LK, Partonen T, Schalling M, Forsell Y. PER2 variation is associated with depression vulnerability. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010; 153:570-581.
37. Dzirasa K, Coque L, Sidor MM, Kumar S, Dancy EA, Takahashi JS, McClung CA, Nicolelis MA. Lithium ameliorates nucleus accumbens phase-signaling dysfunction in a genetic mouse model of mania. J Neurosci 2010; 30:16314-16323.
38. Roybal K, Theobold D, Graham A, DiNieri JA, Russo SJ, Krishnan V, Chakravarty S, Peevey J, Oehrlein N, Birnbaum S, Vitaterna MH, Orsulak P, Takahashi JS, Nestler EJ, Carlezon WA Jr, McClung CA. Mania-like behavior induced by disruption of CLOCK. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007; 104:6406-6411.
39. Mukherjee S, Coque L, Cao JL, Kumar J, Chakravarty S, Asaithamby A, Graham A, Gordon E, Enwright JF 3rd, DiLeone RJ, Birnbaum SG, Cooper DC, McClung CA. Knockdown of Clock in the ventral tegmental area through RNA interference results in a mixed state of mania and depression-like behavior. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 68:503-511.
40. Shimomura K, Lowrey PL, Vitaterna MH, Buhr ED, Kumar V, Hanna P, Omura C, Izumo M, Low SS, Barrett RK, LaRue SI, Green CB, Takahashi JS. Genetic suppression of the circadian Clock mutation by the melatonin biosynthesis pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107:8399-8403.
41. Jones BE. In: Kryger MH, Roth TR, Dement WC (editors). Principles and Practices of Sleep Medicine, 4th edn. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 2005:136-53.
42. SR Pandi-Perumal, Joris C Verster, Jaime M Monti, Malcolm Lader, Salomon Z Langer (editors). Sleep Disorders: Diagnosis and Therapeutics. Christopher M Sinton and Robert W McCarley (chapter editors). Receptor mechanisms in sleep and wakefulness. Informa UK Ltd, 2008.
43. Hoyer D, Hannon JP, Martin GR. Molecular, pharmacological and functional diversity of 5-HT receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 71:533-554.
44. Siegel JM. The neurotransmitters of sleep. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65:4-7.
45. Germain A, Kupfer DJ. Circadian rhythm disturbances in depression. Hum Psychopharmacol 2008;23:571-585.
46. Winokur A, Gary KA, Rodner S, Rae-Red C, Fernando AT, Szuba MP. Depression, sleep physiology, and antidepressant drugs. Depress Anxiety 2001; 14:19-28.
47. Rush AJ, Giles DE, Jarrett RB, Feldman-Koffler F, Debus JR, Weissenburger J, Orsulak PJ, Roffwarg HP. Reduced REM latency predicts response to tricyclic medication in depressed outpatients. Biol Psychiatry 1989;26:61-72.
48. Kupfer DJ, Spiker DG, Coble PA, Neil JF, Ulrich R, Shaw DH. Sleep and treatment prediction in endogenous depression. Am J Psychiatry 1981;138:429-434.
49. Vogel GW. Evidence for REM sleep deprivation as the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1983;7:343-349.
50. Vogel GW, Buffenstein A, Minter K, Hennessey A. Drug effects on REM sleep and on endogenous depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1990; 14:49-63.
51. DeMartinis NA, Winokur A. Effects of psychiatric medications on sleep and sleep disorders. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 2006; 6:17-29.
52. Sharpley AL, Cowen PJ. Effect of pharmacologic treatments on the sleep of depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37:85-98.
53. Sprouse J, Braselton J,Reynolds L. Fluoxetine modulates the circadian biological clock via phase advances of suprachiasmatic nucleus neuronal firing. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 60:896-899.
54. Härtter S, Wang X, Weigmann H, Friedberg T, Arand M, Oesch F, Hiemke C. Differential effects of fluvoxamine and other antidepressants on the biotransformation of melatonin. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2001;21(2):167-174.
55. Sharpley AL, Williamson DJ, Attenburrow ME, Pearson G, Sargent P, Cowen PJ. The effects of paroxetine and nefazodone on sleep: a placebo-controlled trial. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 126:5054.
56. Winokur A, Sewitch DE , Phillips JL, Biniaur IV. Sleep architecture and mood effects of sertraline in outpatients with major depression: a preliminary report. Biol Psychiatry 1991;29:163.
57. Nofzinger EA, Reynolds CF 3rd, Thase ME, Frank E, Jennings JR, Fasiczka AL, Sullivan LR, Kupfer DJ. REM sleep enhancement by buproprion in depressed men. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152:274-276.
58. Salin-Pascual RJ, Galicia-Polo L, Drucker-Colin R. Sleep changes after 4 consecutive days of venlafaxine administration in normal volunteers. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58:348-350.
59. Peterson MJ, Benca RM. Sleep in mood disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2006; 29:1009-1032.
60. Vincent S, Bieck PR, Garland EM, Loghin C, Bymaster FP, Black BK, Gonzales C, Potter WZ, Robertson D. Clinical assessment of norepinephrine transporter blockade through biochemical and pharmacological profiles. Circulation 2004; 109:3202-3207.
61. Nutt DJ. Tolerability and safety aspects of mirtazapine. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2002; 17:37-41.
62. Winokur A, DeMartinis NA 3rd, McNally DP, Gary EM, Cormier JL, Gary KA. Comparative effects of mirtazapine and fluoxetine on sleep physiology measures in patients with major depression and insomnia. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64:1224-1229.
63. Wilson S, Argyropoulos S. Antidepressants and sleep. Drug 2005; 65:927-947.
64. Mendoza J, Challet E. Brain clocks: from the suprachiasmatic nuclei to a cerebral network. Neuroscientist 2009;15:477-488.
65. Pévet P, Agez L, Bothorel B, Saboureau M, Gauer F, Laurent V, Masson-Pévet M. Melatonin in the multi-oscillatory mammalian circadian world. Chronobiol Int 2006; 23:39-51.
66. Buckley TM, Schatzberg AF. A pilot study of the phase angle between cortisol and melatonin in major depression – a potential biomarker? J Psychiatr Res 2010; 44:69-74.
67. Lewy AJ. Depressive disorders may more commonly be related to circadian phase delays rather than advances: time will tell. Sleep Med 2010; 11:117-118.
68. Soria V, Martínez-Amorós E, Escaramís G, Valero J, Crespo JM, Gutiérrez-Zotes A, Bayés M, Martorell L, Vilella E, Estivill X, Menchón JM, Gratacòs M, Urretavizcaya M. Resequencing and association analysis of arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT). Gene and its contribution to major depression susceptibility. J Pineal Res 2010; 49:35-44.
69. Ga ł ecki P, Szemraj J, Bartosz G, Bie ń kiewicz M, Ga ł ecka E, Florkowski A, Lewi ń ski A, Karbownik-Lewi ń ska M. Singlenucleotide polymorphisms and mRNA expression for melatonin synthesis rate-limiting enzyme in recurrent depressive disorder. J Pineal Res 2010; 48:311-317.
70. Dubocovich ML, Markowska M. Functional MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptors in mammals. Endocrine 2005; 27:101-110.
71. Saper CB, Scammell TE, Lu J. Hypothalamic regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms. Nature 2005; 437:1257-1263.
72. Sateia MJ, Kirby-Long P, Taylor JL. Efficacy and clinical safety of ramelteon.: an evidence based review. Sleep Med Rev 2008;12:319-332.
73. Bourin M, Mocaer E, Porsolt R. Antidepressant-like activity of S 20098 (agomelatine) in the forced swimming test in rodents: involvement of melatonin and serotonin receptors. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2004; 29:126-133.
74. Bertaina-Anglade V, Drieu la Rochelle C, Boyer PA, Mocaer E. Antidepressant-like effects of agomelatine (S 20098) in the learned helplessness model. Behav Pharmacol 2006; 17:703-713.
75. Norman TR, Irons J, Cranston I. Effect of the novel antidepressant agomelatine in the olfactory bulbectomised rat. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol P02597, 2004; 7:2.
76. Papp M, Gruca P, Boyer PA, Mocaer E. Effect of agomelatine in the chronic mild stress model of depression in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28:694-703.
77. Gigli GL, Placidi F, Diomedi M, Maschio M, Silvestri G, Scalise A, Marciani MG. Nocturnal sleep and daytime somnolence in untreated patients with temporal lobe epilepsy: changes after treatment with controlled-release carbamazepine. Epilepsia 1997; 38:696-701.
78. Gann H, Riemann D, Hohagen F, Müller WE, Berger M. The influence of carbamazepine on sleep-EEG and the clonidine test in healthy subjects: results of a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35:893-896.
79. Declerck AC, Wauquier A. Influence of antiepileptic drugs on sleep patterns. In: Degen R, Rodin EA (editors). Epilepsy, Sleep and Sleep Deprivation, 2nd edn. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 1991:153-163.
80. Manni R, Ratti MT, Galimberti CA, Morini R, Perucca E, Tartara A. Daytime sleepiness in epileptic patients on long-term monotherapy: MSLT, clinical and psychometric assessment. Neurophysiol Clin 1993;23:71-6.
81. Legros B, Bazil CW. Effects of antiepileptic drugs on sleep architecture: a pilot study. Sleep Med 2003;4:51-55.
82. Sammaritano M, Sherwin A. Effect of anticonvulsant on sleep. Neurology 2000; 54:16-24.
83. Justice A W, Benedetti F, Terman M. Chronotherapeutics for Affective Disorders: A Clinician’s Manual for Light and Wake Therapy. S. Karger AG, PO Box, CH-4009 Basel. 2009:76.
84. Baxter LR. Can lithium carbonate prolong the antidepressant effect of sleep deprivation? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42:635.
85. Baxter LR Jr, Liston EH, Schwartz JM, Altshuler LL, Wilkins JN, Richeimer S, Guze BH. Prolongation of the antidepressant response to partial sleep deprivation by lithium. Psychiatry Res 1986; 19:17-23.
86. Szuba MP, Baxter LR Jr, Altshuler LL, Allen EM, Guze BH, Schwartz JM, Liston EH. Lithium sustains the acute antidepressant effects of sleep deprivation: preliminary findings from a controlled study. Psychiatry Res 1994; 51:283-295.
87. Benedetti F, Colombo C, Barbini B, Campori E, Smeraldi E. Ongoing lithium treatment prevents relapse after total sleep deprivation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19:240-245.
88. Benedetti F, Barbini B, Bernasconi A, Fulgosi MC, Campori E, Colombo C, Dallaspezia S, Lorenzi C, Pontiggia A, Radaelli D, Smeraldi E. Lithium overcomes the influence of 5-HTTLPR gene polymorphism on antidepressant response to sleep deprivation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2008; 28:249-251.
89. Bunney BG, Bunney WE. Rapid-acting antidepressant strategies: mechanisms of action. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2011; 7:1-19.
90. Cohrs S. Sleep disturbances in patients with schizophrenia: impact and effect of antipsychotics. CNS Drugs 2008;22:939-962.
91. Gerlach J, Peacock L. New antipsychotics: the present status. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1995; 10:39-48.
92. Sharpley AL, Attenburrow ME, Hafizi S, Cowen PJ. Olanzapine increases slow wave sleep and sleep continuity in SSRI-resistant depressed patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:450-454.
93. Vidarsdottir S, Roelfsema F, Frolich M, Pijl H. Olanzapine shifts the temporal relationship between the daily acrophase of serum prolactin and cortisol concentrations rhythm in healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34:705-712.
94. Yasui-Furukori N, Furukori H, Sugawara N, Tsuchimine S, Fujii A, Inoue Y, Kaneko S. Prolactin fluctuation over the course of a day during treatments with three atypical antipsychotics in schizophrenic patients. Hum Psychopharmacol 2010; 25:236-242.
95. Roky R, Valatx JL, Paut-Pagano L, Jouvet M. Hypothalamic injection of prolactin or its antibody alters the rat sleep–wake cycle. Physiol Behav 1994; 55:1015-1019.
96. Obál F Jr, Kacsóh B, Bredow S, Guha-Thakurta N, Krueger JM. Sleep in rats rendered chronically hyperprolactinemic with anterior pituitary grafts. Brain Res 1997; 755:130-136.
97. Frieboes RM, Murck H, Stalla GK, Antonijevic IA, Steiger A. Enhanced slow wave sleep in patients with prolactinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83:2706-2710.
98. Weikel JC, Wichniak A, Ising M, Brunner H, Friess E, Held K, Mathias S, Schmid DA, Uhr M, Steiger A. Ghrelin promotes slowwave sleep in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003; 284:407-415.
99. Szentirmai E, Kapás L, Krueger JM. Ghrelin microinjection into forebrain sites induces wakefulness and feeding in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 292:75-85.
100. Rosenhagen MC, Uhr M, Schüssler P, Steiger A. Elevated plasma ghrelin levels in night-eating syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:813.
101. Cohrs S, Rodenbeck A, Guan Z, Pohlmann K, Jordan W, Meier A, Rüther E. Sleep-promoting properties of quetiapine in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2004;174:421-429.
102. Hinze-Selch D, Mullington J, Orth A, Lauer CJ, Pollmächer T. Effects of clozapine on sleep: a longitudinal study. Biol Psychiatry 1997 15; 42:260-266.
103. Sharpley AL, Vassalo CM, Cowen PJ. Olanzapine increases slowwave sleep: evidence for blockade of central 5-HT2C receptors in vivo. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47:468-70.