Peru’da yerlilik, devlet politikaları ve siyasal dışlanma: Tarihsel bir analiz

Abstract

Günümüzde yerli halkların mücadelesi birçok ülkeyi doğrudan etkilemektedir. Latin Amerika yerli mücadelesinin yoğun olduğu bölgelerden bir tanesidir. Bazı ülkelerde yerli aktörler devlet başkanlığına kadar yükselip ulusal siyasette belirleyici bir rol üstlenirken, kimi ülkelerde yerli nüfusun yoğunluğuna karşın yerli örgütlenmelerin yokluğu ve zayıflığı göze çarpmaktadır. Bunun en bariz örneği olarak Peru gösterilebilir. Bu çalışma, Latin Amerika’da son otuz yılda güç kazanan yerli hareketlerinin genel eğiliminden ayrışan Peru örneğini tarihsel ve siyasal bağlamıyla incelemektedir. Bölgedeki birçok ülkede yerli topluluklar kültürel tanınma, siyasal temsil ve hak taleplerinde önemli ilerlemeler kaydetmiş olsa da geniş yerli nüfusa sahip Peru’da yerli hareketinin neden zayıf kaldığı temel araştırma sorusunu oluşturmaktadır. Çalışma, Peru’daki bu özgün durumu açıklayabilmek için öncelikle uluslararası yerli hakları çerçevesini ele almaktadır. Ardından Peru’nun demografik incelemesine yer verilmekte ve Peru toplumunda yerli olmanın anlamı incelenmektedir. Sonrasında Peru demokrasisine ve yerli halkların mücadelesine yer verilmektedir. Bu mücadele bazen Sendero Luminoso örneğinde olduğu gibi silahlı mücadeleye evrilmiştir. Sendero’nun örgütsel yapısı, stratejisi ve yerli hareketi açısından önemi ortaya konulmaktadır. Bu çalışmada doküman incelemesi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Çalışma hazırlanırken ağırlıklı olarak -yabancı literatüre- başvurulmuş olup bilimsel makaleler ve kitaplar taranıp analizler yapılmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda, tarih boyunca birçok kez yerli ayaklanmalarına sahne olsa da Peru’da yerli aktivizmi ve hareketinin diğer Latin Amerikalı emsallerine nazaran zayıf ve parçalanmış olduğu değerlendirilmektedir. Şu ana kadar ortak bir yerli kimliğinin inşa edilemediği ifade edilebilir. Ortak yerli kimliğin geliş(e)memesinde kamu politikalarının da etkili olduğu görülmektedir.

Keywords

• Peru
• yerli halklar
• yerli aktivizmi
• yerli hakları
• Sendero Luminoso

Indigenousness, state policies, and political exclusion in Peru: A historical analysis

Abstract

Today, the struggles of indigenous peoples directly affect many countries. Latin America is one of the regions where indigenous struggles are intense. In some countries, indigenous actors have risen to the presidency and assumed a decisive role in national politics, while in other countries, despite the large indigenous population, the absence and weakness of indigenous organizations is striking. Peru may be cited as the most obvious example of this. This study examines the Peruvian case, which diverges from the general trend of indigenous movements gaining strength in Latin America over the past thirty years, within its historical and political context. Although indigenous communities in many countries in the region have made significant progress in terms of cultural recognition, political representation, and rights claims, the fundamental research question is why the indigenous movement has remained weak in Peru, which has a large indigenous population. In order to explain this unique situation in Peru, the study first addresses the international framework of indigenous rights. It then examines Peru's demographics and explores the meaning of being indigenous in Peruvian society. Subsequently, it addresses Peruvian democracy and the struggle of indigenous peoples. This struggle has sometimes evolved into armed conflict, as in the case of Sendero Luminoso. Sendero's organizational structure, strategy, and the importance of Sendero from the perspective of the indigenous movement are highlighted. This study employs the document review method. While preparing the study, foreign literature was primarily consulted, and scientific articles and books were reviewed and analysed. The study concludes that, despite being the scene of numerous indigenous uprisings throughout history, indigenous activism and movements in Peru are weak and fragmented compared to their Latin American counterparts. It may be said that a common indigenous identity has not been established so far. Public policies have also been seen to be effective in preventing the development of a common indigenous identity.

Keywords

• Peru
• indigenous peoples
• indigenous activism
• indigenous rights
• Sendero Luminoso

References

1. Albo, X. (2012). Indigenous movements in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. R. Boschi & C. H. Santana (Eds.), Development and Semi-Periphery: Post-Neoliberal Trajectories in South America and Central Eastern Europe (s. 105–122) içinde. Londra & New York: Anthem Press.
2. Avilés, W., & Rosas, Y. R. (2017). Low-Intensity Democracy and Peru’s Neoliberal State: The case of the Humala administration. Latin American Perspectives, 44(5), 162–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X17705867
3. Babb, F. E. (2012). Theorizing gender, race, and cultural tourism in Latin America: A view from Peru and Mexico. Latin American Perspectives, 39(6), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X12454560
4. Bourque, S. C., & Warren, K. B. (1989). Democracy without peace: The cultural politcs of terror in Peru. Latin American Research Review, 24(1), 7–34.
5. C169 - Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169). (n.d.). Erişim adresi (16, Haziran 2025): https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/nrmlx_en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:55:0::NO::P55_TYPE%2CP55_LANG%2CP55_DOCUMENT%2CP55_NODE:REV%2Cen%2CC169%2C%2FDocument
6. Convention C107 - Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107). (n.d.). Erişim adresi (16 Eylül 2025): https://normlex.ilo.org/dyn/nrmlx_en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C107
7. Coxshall, W. (2010). “When they came to take our resources”: Mining conflicts in Peru and their complexity. Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, 54(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.3167/sa.2010.540103
8. Crabtree, J. (2010). Democracy without parties? Some lessons from Peru. Journal of Latin American Studies, 42(2), 357–382. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X10000477

9. de la Cadena, M. (1998). Silent racism and intellectual superiority in Peru. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 17(2), 143–164.
10. Duenas, A. (2010). Indians and mestizos in the “lettered city”: Reshaping justice, social hierarchy, and political culture in colonial Peru. University Press of Colorado.
11. Dyer, D. R. (1962). Population of the Quechua region of Peru. Geographical Review, 52(3), 337–345. https://doi.org/10.2307/212533
12. Farnsworth, E. (1988). Peru: A nation in crisis. World Policy Journal, 5(4), 725–746. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40468593
13. Felices, M. (2017). The pacification of Peru and the production of a neoliberal populist order. State Criminal Journal, 6(1), 156–174.
14. Fumerton, M. A. (2018). Beyond counterinsurgency: Peasant militias and wartime social order in Peru’s civil war. European REview of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 105, 61–86.
15. Golash-Boza, T. (2010). Does whitening happen? Distinguishing between race and color labels in an African-descended community in Peru. Social Problems, 57(1), 138–156. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2010.57.1.138
16. Greene, S. (2006). Getting over the Andes: The geo-eco-politics of indigenous movements in Peru’s twenty-first century Inca empire. Journal of Latin American Studies, 38(2), 327–354.
17. Jackson, J. E., & Warren, K. B. (2005). Indigenous movements in Latin America, 1992-2004: Controversies, ironies, new directions. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 549–573. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120529
18. Madrid, A. L. (2011). Ethnic proximity and ethnic voting in Peru. Journal of Latin American Studies, 43(2), 267–297.
19. May, S., & Aikman, S. (2003). Indigenous education: Addressing current issues and developments. Comparative Education, 39(2), 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050060302549
20. Mendez-Gastelumendi, C. (2001). The power of naming, or the construction of ethnic and national identities in Peru: Myth, history and the Iquichanos. Past & Present, 171, 127–160.
21. Naim, M. (2003). An indigenous world. Foreign Policy, 139, 95–96.
22. Nef, J., & Vanderkop, J. (1988). The spiral of violence: Insurgency and counterinsurgency in Peru. Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 13(26), 53–72.
23. Payne, J. (1965). Peru: The politics of structured violence. The Journal of Politics, 27(2), 362–374.
24. Rousseau, S., & Hudon, A. M. (2016). Paths towards autonomy in indigenous women’s movements: Mexico, Peru, Bolivia. Journal of Latin American Studies, 48(1), 33–60. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X15000802
25. Schmidt, G. D. (1989). Political variables and governmental decentralization in Peru, 1949-1988. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 31(1/2), 193–232.
26. Seligmann, L. J. (1993). The burden of visions amidst reform: Peasant relations to law in the Peruvian Andes. American Ethnologist, 20(1), 25–51.
27. Smith, R. C. (1982). Liberal ideology and indigenous communities in post-independence Peru. Journal of International Affairs, 36(1), 73–82.
28. St. John, R. B. (1984). Peru: Democracy under siege. The World Today, 40(7), 299–306.
29. Stocks, A. (2005). Too much for too few: Problems of indigenous land rights in Latin America. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143844
30. T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı. (n.d.). Peru. Erişim adresi (2 Temmuz 2025): https://www.mfa.gov.tr/peru-kunyesi.tr.mfa
31. Thorp, R., Caumartin, C., & Gray-Molina, G. (2006). Inequality, ethnicity, political mobilisation and political violence in Latin America: The cases of Bolivia, Guatemala and Peru. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 25(4), 453–480. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-9856.2006.00207.x
32. Tucker, J. (2011). Permitted Indians and popular music in contemporary Peru: The Poetics and Politics of Indigenous Performativity. Ethnomsicology, 55(3), 387–413.
33. United Nations Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. (n.d.). https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf
34. Vásquez, P. I. (2014). Oil Sparks in the Amazon. Local Conflicts, Indigenous Populations, and Natural Resources. Atina & Londra: University of Georgia Press.
35. Wilson, F. (2000). Indians and Mestizos : Identity and urban popular culture in Andean Peru. Journal of Southern African Studies, 26(2), 239–253