Sustainable educational virtual reality environments: Development, integration, and pedagogical alignment
Year 2025,
Volume: 15 Issue: 2, 1212 - 1229, 29.06.2025
Ali Geriş
,
Barış Çukurbaşı
,
Yeliz Tunga
,
Gizem Engin
Abstract
This study comprehensively addresses the sustainable integration of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies in education, as well as the development and enhancement process of the Educational Virtual Reality Campus (EVRECA) platform. The research first examines the potential benefits and technical challenges associated with the use of VR technologies in educational environments, focusing on how these technologies can be effectively integrated into educational processes. The EVRECA platform was developed based on a solid technical infrastructure and principles of sustainability, designed to support diverse educational content. In particular, the study delves into the development process of interactive VR modules that enable students to explore complex concepts in immersive virtual environments. During this process, extensive pilot testing was conducted to optimize the user experience, and improvements were made based on user feedback. The study also discusses the access challenges encountered during the broader implementation of VR technologies in education and offers solutions to these issues. Scalable solutions were developed to ensure the EVRECA platform’s accessibility to a wider audience, and the findings from this effort provide valuable insights for future educational technology projects. Ultimately, the study presents recommendations for the widespread adoption and effective integration of sustainable VR applications in educational technologies.
Ethical Statement
Ethics committee approval was obtained for this study by the Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of Manisa Celal Bayar University dated 01.11.2022 and no: 2022/09.
Supporting Institution
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)
Thanks
This study was supported by Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under the Grant Number 122K775. The authors thank to TUBITAK for their supports.
References
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Abad-Segura, E., Gonzalez-Zamar, M.-D., Rosa, A. L.-d. l., & Morales Cevallos, M. B. (2020). Sustainability of educational technologies: An approach to augmented reality research. Sustainability, 12(10), Article 4091. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104091
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Al-Gindy, A., Felix, C., Ahmed, A., Matoug, A., & Alkhidir, M. (2020). Virtual reality: Development of an integrated learning environment for education. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(3), 171-175. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.3.1358
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Azis, I. R., & Cantafio, G. (2023). The Role of Virtual Reality in Science and Technology Education. Journal of Training, Education, Science and Technology, 1(2)13-18. https://doi.org/10.51629/jtest.v1i1.170
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Bheda, R., Bhimani, D., Dharamshi, F., Sheth, S., Menon, R., Somra, R., Bhasuru, R., Mahajan, C., Gajbhiye, S., & Toradmalle, D. (2021). Educational Advancements in the Field of Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality. 2021 International Conference on Communication information and Computing Technology (ICCICT), Mumbai, India.
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Cai, Y., Jin, Z., Liu, S., & Ying, J. (2023). Application and research of VR in education. Applied and Computational Engineering, 8, 241-247. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/8/20230150
-
Chen, J., Fu, Z., Liu, H., & Wang, J. (2024). Effectiveness of virtual reality on learning engagement: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies (IJWLTT), 19(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJWLTT.334849
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Ebinger, F., Buttke, L., & Kreimeier, J. (2022). Augmented and virtual reality technologies in education for sustainable development: An expert-based technology assessment. TATuP-Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis/Journal for Technology Assessment in Theory and Practice, 31(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.14512/tatup.31.1.28
-
Fei, T., Mao, Q., Wu, F., & Yu, P. (2023). The Future Prospects of Importance of VR's Impact on Education. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 39, 111-120. https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v39i.6510
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Gao, R. (2023). Virtual reality technology in the field of education. Applied and Computational Engineering, 16, 228-233. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/16/20230897
-
Geris, A., Cukurbasi, B., Kilinc, M., & Teke, O. (2024). Balancing performance and comfort in virtual reality: A study of FPS, latency, and batch values. Software: Practice and Experience 54(12), 2336-2348. https://doi.org/10.1002/spe.3356
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Geriş, A. (2023). Bilgisayar Bilimi Eğitiminde Sanal Gerçeklik. In P. D. S. B. Kert (Ed.), Teoriden Uygulamaya Bilgisayar Bilimi Eğitimi (Vol. 1, pp. 159-182). Nobel Akademi Yayıncılık.
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Grewe, M., & Gie, L. (2023). Can virtual reality have a positive influence on student engagement? South African Journal of Higher Education, 37(5), 124-141. https://doi.org/10.20853/37-5-5815
-
Han, B., Weeks, D. J., & Leite, F. (2023). Virtual reality‐facilitated engineering education: A case study on sustainable systems knowledge. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 31(5), 1174-1189. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22632
-
Hassan, G. (2023). Technology and the Transformation of Educational Practices: A Future Perspective. International Journal of Economic, Business, Accounting, Agriculture Management and Sharia Administration (IJEBAS), 3(1), 1596–1603. https://doi.org/10.54443/ijebas.v3i1.1136
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Horváth, I. (2021). An analysis of personalized learning opportunities in 3D VR. Frontiers in Computer Science, 3, Article 673826. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2021.673826
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Hsiao, P.-W., & Su, C.-H. (2021). A study on the impact of STEAM education for sustainable development courses and its effects on student motivation and learning. Sustainability, 13(7), Article 3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073772
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Iqbal, M. Z., Mangina, E., & Campbell, A. G. (2022). Current challenges and future research directions in augmented reality for education. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 6(9), Article 75. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.16369224.v1
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Kalunga, R., & Elshobosky, F. (2023). Using Immersive Technologies To Enhance Student Learning Outcomes In Clinical Sciences Education And Training. Education and New Developments, Porto, Portugal.
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Kee, T., & Zhang, H. (2022). Digital experiential learning for sustainable horticulture and landscape management education. Sustainability, 14(15), 9116. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159116
-
Lee, H., & Hwang, Y. (2022). Technology-enhanced education through VR-making and metaverse-linking to foster teacher readiness and sustainable learning. Sustainability, 14(8), 4786. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084786
-
Li, F., Jiang, J., Qin, Q., Wang, X., Zeng, G., Gu, Y., & Guo, W. (2023). Application of sustainable development of teaching in engineering education: A case study of undergraduate course design of raman spectroscopy based on virtual reality (VR) technology. Sustainability, 15(3), Article 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031782
-
Liao, X. (2023). Immersive Learning: Characteristics of Development of VR Education Technology and the Practice. Adv. Educ. Technol. Psychol, 7, 107-111. https://doi.org/10.23977/aetp.2023.070119
-
Lin, Y., You, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2023). Application Of VR In the Field of Education. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 68, 11-20. https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v68i.11925
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Mentsiev, A., Aygumov, T., & Zaripova, R. (2023). Harnessing virtual reality and simulation technologies in education for sustainable development. E3S Web of Conferences,
-
Montagud, M., Cernigliaro, G., Arevalillo-Herráez, M., García-Pineda, M., Segura-Garcia, J., & Fernández, S. (2022). Social VR and multi-party holographic communications: Opportunities, Challenges and Impact in the Education and Training Sectors. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.00330. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2210.00330
-
Mouttalib, H., Tabaa, M., & Youssefi, M. (2023). Revolutionizing engineering education: Creating a web-based teaching platform for immersive learning experiences. Journal of Smart Cities and Society, 2(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3233/SCS-230012
-
Niu, M., Lo, C.-H., & Yu, Z. (2021). Embedding virtual reality technology in teaching 3D design for secondary education. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2, Article 661920. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.661920
-
Park, S., & Kim, S. (2022). Identifying world types to deliver gameful experiences for sustainable learning in the metaverse. Sustainability, 14(3), Article 1361. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031361
-
Petersen, G. B., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2021). Pedagogical agents in educational vr: An in the wild study. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Yokohama, Japan.
-
Pirker, J., & Dengel, A. (2021). The potential of 360 virtual reality videos and real VR for education—a literature review. IEEE computer graphics and applications, 41(4), 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2021.3067999
-
Purnama, I., & Pranoto, N. W. (2023). Virtual Reality for Future Education: Systematic Literature Review. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 9(7), 322-327. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v9i7.4485
-
Rafiq, A. A., Triyono, M. B., & Djatmiko, I. W. (2022). Enhancing student engagement in vocational education by using virtual reality. Waikato Journal of Education, 27(3), 175-188. https://doi.org/10.15663/wje.v27i3.964
-
Romano, M., Frolli, A., Aloisio, A., Russello, C., Rega, A., Cerciello, F., & Bisogni, F. (2023). Exploring the potential of immersive virtual reality in Italian schools: a practical workshop with high school teachers. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 7(12), Article 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti7120111
-
Ronaghi, M. H. (2023). The effect of virtual reality technology and education on sustainable behavior: A comparative quasi-experimental study. Interactive technology and smart education, 20(4), 475-492. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-02-2022-0025
-
Sanfilippo, F., Blazauskas, T., Salvietti, G., Ramos, I., Vert, S., Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., & Oliveira, D. (2022). A perspective review on integrating VR/AR with haptics into stem education for multi-sensory learning. Robotics, 11(2), Article 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics11020041.
-
Shaukat, S. M. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) in education. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Communication and Technology, 3(2), 51-56. https://doi.org/10.48175/ijarsct-12108
-
Singh, A., Ferry, D., Ramakrishnan, A., & Balasubramanian, S. (2020). Using virtual reality in biomedical engineering education. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 142(11), Article 111013. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4048005
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Vemula, S. (2021). Leveraging VR/AR/MR and AI as innovative educational practices for “iGeneration” students. In Handbook of research on equity in computer science in P-16 education (pp. 265-277). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-4739-7.ch015
-
Wang, C., Tang, Y., Kassem, M. A., Li, H., & Hua, B. (2022). Application of VR technology in civil engineering education. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(2), 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22458
-
Wang, Y. (2023). Procedural content generation for VR educational applications: The investigation of AI-based approaches for improving learning experience. Applied and Computational Engineering, 17, 23-21. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/17/20230905
-
Yan, R., Su, Y., Li, Q., & Wang, B. (2021). VR Technology Applied in The Teaching of Equipment Courses. 2021 2nd International Conference on Information Science and Education (ICISE-IE), Chongqing, China.
-
Yu, Z., & Xu, W. (2022). A meta‐analysis and systematic review of the effect of virtual reality technology on users' learning outcomes. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(5), 1470-1484. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22532
Sürdürülebilir eğitsel sanal gerçeklik ortamları: Geliştirme, entegrasyon ve pedagojik uyum
Year 2025,
Volume: 15 Issue: 2, 1212 - 1229, 29.06.2025
Ali Geriş
,
Barış Çukurbaşı
,
Yeliz Tunga
,
Gizem Engin
Abstract
Bu çalışma, sanal gerçeklik (VR) teknolojilerinin eğitimde sürdürülebilir entegrasyonunu ve Eğitsel Sanal Gerçeklik Kampüsü (EVRECA) platformunun geliştirilme ve iyileştirilme sürecini kapsamlı bir şekilde ele almaktadır. Araştırmada, ilk olarak VR teknolojilerinin eğitim ortamlarında kullanımının potansiyel faydaları ve teknik zorlukları incelenmiş, ilgili teknolojilerin eğitim süreçlerine nasıl entegre edilebileceği üzerinde durulmuştur. EVRECA platformu, sağlam bir teknik altyapı ve sürdürülebilirlik ilkelerine dayalı bir yapı oluşturularak geliştirilmiş, farklı eğitim içeriklerini destekleyecek şekilde tasarlanmıştır. Özellikle, karmaşık kavramların sanal ortamlarda etkileşimli olarak keşfedilmesine olanak tanıyan VR modüllerinin geliştirilmesi süreci ayrıntılı olarak ele alınmıştır. Bu süreçte, platformun kullanıcı deneyimini optimize etmek amacıyla kapsamlı pilot uygulamalar yapılmış ve kullanıcı geri bildirimlerine dayalı iyileştirmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma ayrıca, VR teknolojilerinin eğitimde yaygınlaştırılması sırasında karşılaşılan erişim zorlukları ve bu sorunlara yönelik çözüm önerilerini tartışmaktadır. EVRECA platformunun geniş kitlelere hitap edebilmesi için geliştirilen ölçeklenebilir çözümler ve bu çözümler ışığında elde edilen bulgular, gelecekteki eğitim teknolojileri projelerine önemli katkılar sunmaktadır. Sonuç olarak, çalışma, eğitim teknolojilerinde sürdürülebilir VR uygulamalarının yaygınlaştırılması ve etkin entegrasyonuna yönelik öneriler geliştirmektedir.
References
-
Abad-Segura, E., Gonzalez-Zamar, M.-D., Rosa, A. L.-d. l., & Morales Cevallos, M. B. (2020). Sustainability of educational technologies: An approach to augmented reality research. Sustainability, 12(10), Article 4091. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104091
-
Al-Gindy, A., Felix, C., Ahmed, A., Matoug, A., & Alkhidir, M. (2020). Virtual reality: Development of an integrated learning environment for education. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(3), 171-175. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.3.1358
-
Azis, I. R., & Cantafio, G. (2023). The Role of Virtual Reality in Science and Technology Education. Journal of Training, Education, Science and Technology, 1(2)13-18. https://doi.org/10.51629/jtest.v1i1.170
-
Bheda, R., Bhimani, D., Dharamshi, F., Sheth, S., Menon, R., Somra, R., Bhasuru, R., Mahajan, C., Gajbhiye, S., & Toradmalle, D. (2021). Educational Advancements in the Field of Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality. 2021 International Conference on Communication information and Computing Technology (ICCICT), Mumbai, India.
-
Cai, Y., Jin, Z., Liu, S., & Ying, J. (2023). Application and research of VR in education. Applied and Computational Engineering, 8, 241-247. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/8/20230150
-
Chen, J., Fu, Z., Liu, H., & Wang, J. (2024). Effectiveness of virtual reality on learning engagement: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies (IJWLTT), 19(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJWLTT.334849
-
Ebinger, F., Buttke, L., & Kreimeier, J. (2022). Augmented and virtual reality technologies in education for sustainable development: An expert-based technology assessment. TATuP-Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis/Journal for Technology Assessment in Theory and Practice, 31(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.14512/tatup.31.1.28
-
Fei, T., Mao, Q., Wu, F., & Yu, P. (2023). The Future Prospects of Importance of VR's Impact on Education. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 39, 111-120. https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v39i.6510
-
Gao, R. (2023). Virtual reality technology in the field of education. Applied and Computational Engineering, 16, 228-233. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/16/20230897
-
Geris, A., Cukurbasi, B., Kilinc, M., & Teke, O. (2024). Balancing performance and comfort in virtual reality: A study of FPS, latency, and batch values. Software: Practice and Experience 54(12), 2336-2348. https://doi.org/10.1002/spe.3356
-
Geriş, A. (2023). Bilgisayar Bilimi Eğitiminde Sanal Gerçeklik. In P. D. S. B. Kert (Ed.), Teoriden Uygulamaya Bilgisayar Bilimi Eğitimi (Vol. 1, pp. 159-182). Nobel Akademi Yayıncılık.
-
Grewe, M., & Gie, L. (2023). Can virtual reality have a positive influence on student engagement? South African Journal of Higher Education, 37(5), 124-141. https://doi.org/10.20853/37-5-5815
-
Han, B., Weeks, D. J., & Leite, F. (2023). Virtual reality‐facilitated engineering education: A case study on sustainable systems knowledge. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 31(5), 1174-1189. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22632
-
Hassan, G. (2023). Technology and the Transformation of Educational Practices: A Future Perspective. International Journal of Economic, Business, Accounting, Agriculture Management and Sharia Administration (IJEBAS), 3(1), 1596–1603. https://doi.org/10.54443/ijebas.v3i1.1136
-
Horváth, I. (2021). An analysis of personalized learning opportunities in 3D VR. Frontiers in Computer Science, 3, Article 673826. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2021.673826
-
Hsiao, P.-W., & Su, C.-H. (2021). A study on the impact of STEAM education for sustainable development courses and its effects on student motivation and learning. Sustainability, 13(7), Article 3772. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073772
-
Iqbal, M. Z., Mangina, E., & Campbell, A. G. (2022). Current challenges and future research directions in augmented reality for education. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 6(9), Article 75. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.16369224.v1
-
Kalunga, R., & Elshobosky, F. (2023). Using Immersive Technologies To Enhance Student Learning Outcomes In Clinical Sciences Education And Training. Education and New Developments, Porto, Portugal.
-
Kee, T., & Zhang, H. (2022). Digital experiential learning for sustainable horticulture and landscape management education. Sustainability, 14(15), 9116. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159116
-
Lee, H., & Hwang, Y. (2022). Technology-enhanced education through VR-making and metaverse-linking to foster teacher readiness and sustainable learning. Sustainability, 14(8), 4786. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084786
-
Li, F., Jiang, J., Qin, Q., Wang, X., Zeng, G., Gu, Y., & Guo, W. (2023). Application of sustainable development of teaching in engineering education: A case study of undergraduate course design of raman spectroscopy based on virtual reality (VR) technology. Sustainability, 15(3), Article 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031782
-
Liao, X. (2023). Immersive Learning: Characteristics of Development of VR Education Technology and the Practice. Adv. Educ. Technol. Psychol, 7, 107-111. https://doi.org/10.23977/aetp.2023.070119
-
Lin, Y., You, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2023). Application Of VR In the Field of Education. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology, 68, 11-20. https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v68i.11925
-
Mentsiev, A., Aygumov, T., & Zaripova, R. (2023). Harnessing virtual reality and simulation technologies in education for sustainable development. E3S Web of Conferences,
-
Montagud, M., Cernigliaro, G., Arevalillo-Herráez, M., García-Pineda, M., Segura-Garcia, J., & Fernández, S. (2022). Social VR and multi-party holographic communications: Opportunities, Challenges and Impact in the Education and Training Sectors. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.00330. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2210.00330
-
Mouttalib, H., Tabaa, M., & Youssefi, M. (2023). Revolutionizing engineering education: Creating a web-based teaching platform for immersive learning experiences. Journal of Smart Cities and Society, 2(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3233/SCS-230012
-
Niu, M., Lo, C.-H., & Yu, Z. (2021). Embedding virtual reality technology in teaching 3D design for secondary education. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2, Article 661920. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.661920
-
Park, S., & Kim, S. (2022). Identifying world types to deliver gameful experiences for sustainable learning in the metaverse. Sustainability, 14(3), Article 1361. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031361
-
Petersen, G. B., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2021). Pedagogical agents in educational vr: An in the wild study. Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Yokohama, Japan.
-
Pirker, J., & Dengel, A. (2021). The potential of 360 virtual reality videos and real VR for education—a literature review. IEEE computer graphics and applications, 41(4), 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2021.3067999
-
Purnama, I., & Pranoto, N. W. (2023). Virtual Reality for Future Education: Systematic Literature Review. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 9(7), 322-327. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v9i7.4485
-
Rafiq, A. A., Triyono, M. B., & Djatmiko, I. W. (2022). Enhancing student engagement in vocational education by using virtual reality. Waikato Journal of Education, 27(3), 175-188. https://doi.org/10.15663/wje.v27i3.964
-
Romano, M., Frolli, A., Aloisio, A., Russello, C., Rega, A., Cerciello, F., & Bisogni, F. (2023). Exploring the potential of immersive virtual reality in Italian schools: a practical workshop with high school teachers. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 7(12), Article 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti7120111
-
Ronaghi, M. H. (2023). The effect of virtual reality technology and education on sustainable behavior: A comparative quasi-experimental study. Interactive technology and smart education, 20(4), 475-492. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-02-2022-0025
-
Sanfilippo, F., Blazauskas, T., Salvietti, G., Ramos, I., Vert, S., Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., & Oliveira, D. (2022). A perspective review on integrating VR/AR with haptics into stem education for multi-sensory learning. Robotics, 11(2), Article 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics11020041.
-
Shaukat, S. M. (2023). Exploring the potential of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) in education. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Communication and Technology, 3(2), 51-56. https://doi.org/10.48175/ijarsct-12108
-
Singh, A., Ferry, D., Ramakrishnan, A., & Balasubramanian, S. (2020). Using virtual reality in biomedical engineering education. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 142(11), Article 111013. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4048005
-
Vemula, S. (2021). Leveraging VR/AR/MR and AI as innovative educational practices for “iGeneration” students. In Handbook of research on equity in computer science in P-16 education (pp. 265-277). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-4739-7.ch015
-
Wang, C., Tang, Y., Kassem, M. A., Li, H., & Hua, B. (2022). Application of VR technology in civil engineering education. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(2), 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22458
-
Wang, Y. (2023). Procedural content generation for VR educational applications: The investigation of AI-based approaches for improving learning experience. Applied and Computational Engineering, 17, 23-21. https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/17/20230905
-
Yan, R., Su, Y., Li, Q., & Wang, B. (2021). VR Technology Applied in The Teaching of Equipment Courses. 2021 2nd International Conference on Information Science and Education (ICISE-IE), Chongqing, China.
-
Yu, Z., & Xu, W. (2022). A meta‐analysis and systematic review of the effect of virtual reality technology on users' learning outcomes. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(5), 1470-1484. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22532