Smartphone Application-Based Addiction, Short Video Addiction, and Short Video Flow among Physical Education Majors: A Cross-Sectional Study

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare smartphone application-based addiction, short video addiction, and short video flow levels of physical education majors based on gender, and grade levels of education, as well as to examine the correlation among these variables. A total of 139 physical education majors participated in the study. Data were collected using the Demographic Information Form, the Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale, the Short Video Addiction Scale, and the Short Video Flow Scale. The findings of the study indicated that female and male physical education majors differ in terms of smartphone application-based addiction levels, with females having higher levels, while short video addiction and short video flow levels do not differ; smartphone application-based addiction, short video addiction, and short video flow levels did not differ according to the grade levels of education; and there was a significant, positive, and high-level relationship between smartphone application-based addiction, short video addiction, and short video flow levels. While the smartphone application-based addiction levels of physical education majors were found to be moderate, and their short video addiction and short video flow levels were found to be low, the high level of correlation between these three variables should be examined in depth.

Keywords

• Smartphone
• digital application
• short video
• addiction

References

1. Al-Barashdi, H. S., Bouazza, A., & Jabur, N. H. (2015). Smartphone addiction among university undergraduates: A literature review. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports, 4(3), 210–225. https://doi.org/10.9734/JSRR/2015/12245
2. Aligül, B., & Tolukan, E. (2024). The relationship of smartphone addiction with motivation to participate in physical activity: A study in sports sciences faculty students. Mediterranean Journal of Sport Science, 7(2), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.38021/asbid.1476185
3. Aljomaa, S. S., Qudah, M. F. A., Albursan, I. S., Bakhiet, S. F., & Abduljabbar, A. S. (2016). Smartphone addiction among university students in the light of some variables. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.041
4. Alkahazraji, R., & Yasir, A. A. (2024). The Effect of awareness of the negative effects of internet addiction on reducing addictive behavior. Salud, Ciencia Y Tecnología, 4, 1210. https://doi.org/10.56294/saludcyt2024.949
5. Al-Leimon, O., Pan, W., Jaber, A.-R., Al-Leimon, A., Jaber, A. R., Aljahalin, M., & Dardas, L. A. (2025). Reels to remembrance: Attention partially mediates the relationship between shortform video addiction and memory function among youth. Healthcare, 13(3), 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13030252
6. Alosaimi, F. D., Alyahya, H., Alshahwan, H., Al Mahyijari, N., & Shaik, S. A. (2016). Smartphone addiction among university students in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 37(6), 675–683. https://doi.org/10.15537/smj.2016.6.14430
7. Azam, M., Ali, A., Mattiullah, J., & Perveen, N. (2020). Physical activity, sports participation, and smartphone addiction in adolescent students: A systematic review. Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies, 20(1), 25–41. https://doi.org/10.24193/jebp.2020.1.2
8. Bağcı, H., & Pekşen, M. F. (2018). Investigating the smart phone addictions of vocational school students from different variables. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 6(4), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.17220/mojet.2018.04.004

9. Bankmycell (2025). How many apps are there in the World? BankMyCell. https://www.bankmycell.com/blog/number-of-mobile-apps-worldwide
10. Bilik, Ö., Kankaya, E. A., & Özlü, N. G. Ö. (2024). Impact of levels of perceived stress among senior nursing undergraduates in clinical practice on mobile addiction: A cross-sectional study. Bingöl Üniversitesi Sağlık Dergisi, 5(1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.58605/bingolsaglik.1446805
11. Bisen, S., & Deshpande, Y. (2016). An analytical study of smartphone addiction among engineering students: A gender differences. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 4(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.25215/0401.128
12. Bölükbaşı Macit, Z. B., & Kavafoğlu, S. (2019). Screen: Subject of all information technology addiction. Middle Black Sea Journal of Health Science, 5(3), 293–301. https://doi.org/10.19127/mbsjohs.542122
13. Buke, M., Egesoy, H., & Unver, F. (2021). The effect of smartphone addiction on physical activity level in sports science undergraduates. Journal of bodywork and movement therapies, 28, 530–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2021.09.003
14. Chen, B., Liu, F., Ding, S., Ying, X., Wang, L., & Wen, Y. (2017). Gender differences in factors associated with smartphone addiction: A cross-sectional study among medical college students. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 341. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1503-z
15. Cheng, X., Su, X., Yang, B., Zarifis, A., & Mou, J. (2023). Understanding users’ negative emotions and continuous usage intention in short video platforms. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 58, 101244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2023.101244
16. Chung, S., & Lee, H. K. (2023). Public health approach to problems related to excessive and addictive use of the internet and digital media. Current Addiction Reports, 10(1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-022-00458-z
17. Coban, D. A., & Gundogmus, I. (2019). Effect of smartphone usage profiles on addiction in a university student: A cross-sectional study. Dusunen Adam Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 32(2), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.14744/DAJPNS.2019.00014
18. Csibi, S., Griffiths, M. D., Cook, B., Demetrovics, Z., & Szabo, A. (2018). The psychometric properties of the smartphone application-based addiction scale (SABAS). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 16(2), 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-017-9787-2
19. Datareportal (2025). Digital 2025: Global overview report. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2025-global-overview-report
20. Ding, K., & Li, H. (2023). Digital addiction intervention for children and adolescents: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(6), 4777. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064777
21. Ding, Y., Wan, X., Lu, G., Huang, H., Liang, Y., Yu, J., & Chen, C. (2022). The associations between smartphone addiction and self-esteem, self-control, and social support among Chinese adolescents: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1029323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1029323
22. Diomidous, M., Chardalias, K., Magita, A., Koutonias, P., Panagiotopoulou, P., & Mantas, J. (2016). Social and psychological effects of the internet use. Acta Informatica Medica, 24(1), 66–69. https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2016.24.66-68
23. Fernandes, M. (2025). Unlocking Insights: The influence of age, education, and gender on short video users’ time allocation and temporal preferences. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 13(4), 423-443. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2025.134025
24. Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: Mc Graw Hill.
25. García-Ortiz, C., Lorenzo-González, M., Fernández-Sánchez, J., Solano-Lizcano, V., Del Coso, J., & Collado-Mateo, D. (2025). Recommendations for physical exercise as a strategy to reduce problematic use of the internet and digital devices: A perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(5), 753. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22050753
26. Gezgin, D. M., Hamutoğlu, N. B., Samur, Y. & Yıldırım, S. (2018). Genç nesil arasında yaygınlaşan bir bağımlılık: Akıllı telefon bağımlılığının cinsiyet, akademik başarı ve mobil oyun oynama değişkenleri açısından incelenmesi. Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama, 8(2), 212–231. https://doi.org/10.17943/etku.397112
27. Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., Billieux, J., & Pontes, H. M. (2016). The evolution of Internet addiction: A global perspective. Addictive behaviors, 53, 193–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.11.001
28. Gökler, M. E., & Bulut, Y. E. (2019). Validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the smart phone application based addiction scale. Journal of Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy and Research, 8(2), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.5455/JCBPR.38288
29. Huang, Q., Hu, M., & Zhang, N. (2022). A techno-psychological approach to understanding problematic use of short-form video applications: The role of flow. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 971589. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971589
30. Jo, H., & Baek, E. M. (2023). Exploring the dynamics of mobile app addiction: The interplay of communication, affective factors, flow, perceived enjoyment, and habit. BMC Psychology, 11(1), 404. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01440-8
31. Jung, Y. (2013). What a smartphone is to me: Understanding user values in using smartphones. Information Systems Journal, 24(4), 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12031
32. Karakose, T., Tülübaş, T., & Papadakis, S. (2022). Revealing the intellectual structure and evolution of digital addiction research: An integrated bibliometric and science mapping approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), 14883. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214883
33. Kheradmand, A., Amirlatifi, E. S., & Rahbar, Z. (2023). Personality traits of university students with smartphone addiction. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1083214. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1083214
34. Kumcağız, H., Terzi, Ö., Koç, B., & Terzi, M. (2020). Smartphone addiction in university students. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 9(1), 13–39. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.629737
35. Kuss, D. J. (2025). Online harms problematic technology use is a public health concern and requires a multistakeholder approach. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 21, 100602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2025.100602
36. Kuss, D. J., & Lopez-Fernandez, O. (2016). Internet addiction and problematic Internet use: A systematic review of clinical research. World Journal of Psychiatry, 6(1), 143–176. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v6.i1.143
37. Levey, K. (2025). The role of platform design in excessive short form video use and the resulting ımpacts on cognitive processes (Unpublished senior theses). University of South Carolina.
38. Li, S., Wu, Q., Tang, C., Chen, Z., & Liu, L. (2020). Exercise-based interventions for internet addiction: Neurobiological and neuropsychological evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1296. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01296
39. Li, T., Xia, T., Wang, H., Tu, Z., Tarkoma, S., Han, Z., & Hui, P. (2022). Smartphone app usage analysis: Datasets, methods, and applications. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 24(2), 937–966. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2022.3163176
40. Liang, Y., & Tang, Y. (2025). The Biomechanical influence of physical exercise on mobile phone addiction in college students: Mediating and moderating roles. Molecular & Cellular Biomechanics, 22(1), 787–787. https://doi.org/10.62617/mcb787
41. Liao, M. (2024). Analysis of the causes, psychological mechanisms, and coping strategies of short video addiction in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1391204. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1391204
42. Liu, X., Gui, Z., Chen, Z. M., Feng, Y., Wu, X. D., Su, Z., ... & Xiang, Y. T. (2025). Global prevalence of internet addiction among university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 38(3), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000994
43. Lozano-Blasco, R., Robres, A. Q., & Sánchez, A. S. (2022). Internet addiction in young adults: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 130, 107201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107201
44. Lu, L., Liu, M., Ge, B., Bai, Z., & Liu, Z. (2022). Adolescent addiction to short video applications in the mobile internet era. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 893599. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.893599
45. Mac Cárthaigh, S. (2020). The effectiveness of interventions to reduce excessive mobile device usage among adolescents: A systematic review. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, 35, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npbr.2019.11.002
46. Marino, C., Canale, N., Melodia, F., Spada, M. M., & Vieno, A. (2021). The overlap between problematic smartphone use and problematic social media use: A systematic review. Current Addiction Reports, 8(4), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-021-00398-0
47. Meng, S. Q., Cheng, J. L., Li, Y. Y., Yang, X. Q., Zheng, J. W., Chang, X. W., ... & Shi, J. (2022). Global prevalence of digital addiction in general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 92, 102128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102128
48. Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2000). Incidence and correlates of pathological Internet use among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 16(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(99)00049-7
49. Murathan, T., & Türker, A. (2019). Investigation of the smart phone dependence of university students who have physical and sport education. Social Mentality and Researcher Thinkers Journal (Journal SMART), 5(26), 1830–1840. http://dx.doi.org/10.31576/smryj.396
50. Musaoğlu, Ö., Işık, Ö., & Çiçek, G. (2024). The relationship between smartphone addiction and physical activity levels: A research on sports science students. Spor ve Performans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(3), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.17155/omuspd.1526274
51. Nawaz, S. (2024). Distinguishing between effectual, ineffectual, and problematic smartphone use: A comprehensive review and conceptual pathways model for future research. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 14, 100424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100424
52. Nong, W., He, Z., Ye, J. H., Wu, Y. F., Wu, Y. T., Ye, J. N., & Sun, Y. (2023). The relationship between short video flow, addiction, serendipity, and achievement motivation among Chinese vocational school students: The post-epidemic era context. Healthcare 11(4), 462. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11040462
53. Noroozi, F., Hassanipour, S., Eftekharian, F., Eisapareh, K., & Kaveh, M. H. (2021). Internet addiction effect on quality of life: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. The Scientific World Journal, 2021(1), 2556679. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/2556679
54. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2019), How's life in the digital age?: Opportunities and risks of the digital transformation for people's well-being. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311800-en
55. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2025). Digital transformation and the future of work: Insights from the OECD digital economy outlook. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/digital
56. Oktay, D., & Ozturk, C. (2024). Digital addiction in children and affecting factors. Children, 11(4), 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040417
57. Olson, J. A., Sandra, D. A., Colucci, É. S., Al Bikaii, A., Chmoulevitch, D., Nahas, J., ... & Veissière, S. P. (2022). Smartphone addiction is increasing across the world: A meta-analysis of 24 countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 129, 107138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107138
58. Olson, J. A., Sandra, D. A., Veissière, S. P., & Langer, E. J. (2025). Sex, age, and smartphone addiction across 41 countries. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 23(2), 937–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-023-01146-3
59. Omar, B., & Dequan, W. (2020). Watch, share or create: The influence of personality traits and user motivation on Tiktok mobile video usage. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM), 14(04), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v14i04.12429
60. Ozcan, B., & Meydan Acimis, N. (2021). Sleep quality in Pamukkale University students and its relationship with smartphone addiction. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 37(1), 206–211. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.37.1.3130
61. Pan, Y. C., Chiu, Y. C., & Lin, Y. H. (2020). Systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiology of internet addiction. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 118, 612–622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.08.013
62. Park, N., & Lee, H. (2014). Gender difference in social networking on smartphones: A case study of Korean college student smartphone users. International Telecommunications Policy Review, 21(2), 1–18. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2584824
63. Peper, E., & Harvey, R. (2018). Digital addiction: Increased loneliness, anxiety, and depression. NeuroRegulation, 5(1), 3–3. https://doi.org/10.15540/nr.5.1.3
64. Qin, Y., Omar, B., & Musetti, A. (2022). The addiction behavior of short-form video app TikTok: The information quality and system quality perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 932805. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.932805
65. Roque-Hernández, R. V., Salazar-Hernández, R., & López-Mendoza, A. (2024). Gender differences in the use of smartphones: A quantitative study among Mexican university students. Educar, 60(2), 429–445. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/educar.1991
66. Savci, M., & Aysan, F. (2017). Technological addictions and social connectedness: Predictor effect of internet addiction, social media addiction, digital game addiction and smartphone addiction on social connectedness. Dusunen Adam: Journal of Psychiatry & Neurological Sciences, 30(3), 202–216. https://doi.org/10.5350/DAJPN2017300304
67. Sha, P., Sariyska, R., Riedl, R., Lachmann, B., & Montag, C. (2019). Linking internet communication and smartphone use disorder by taking a closer look at the Facebook and WhatsApp applications. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 9, 100148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.100148
68. Shabur, M. A., & Jahan, J. (2024). Use of smartphones for social networking-men vs women: Case study of Bangladesh. Discover Global Society, 2(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-023-00028-2
69. Söyler, S. (2024). Research on a flow theory and online environments in Türkiye: A bibliometric analysis. Journal of Business in the Digital Age, 7(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.46238/jobda.1445151
70. Statista (2025a). Number of internet and social media users worldwide as of February 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/#:~:text=As%20of%20February%202025%2C%205.56,population%2C%20were%20social%20media%20users.
71. Statista (2025b). Mobile video worldwide: Statistics & facts. https://www.statista.com/topics/8248/mobile-video-worldwide/
72. Türk, N., & Yıldırım, O. (2024). Psychometric properties of Turkish versions of the short video flow scale and short video addiction scale. Journal of Dependence, 25(4), 384–397. https://doi.org/10.51982/bagimli.1440717 United Nations Population Fund. (2025). World population dashboard. https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population-dashboard
73. Üstündağ Öcal, N., & Öztürk, A. (2022). The risk of smartphone addiction in university students and its affecting factors. Journal of Health Sciences and Medicine, 5(4), 989–995. https://doi.org/10.32322/jhsm.1080669
74. Wang, F. (2025). Effects of physical activity on mobile phone addiction among university students: The mediating roles of self-control and resilience. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1503607. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1503607
75. Wearesocial (2024). Digital 2024: Global overview report. https://wearesocial.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Digital_2024_Global.pdf
76. Wolff, J. (2021). How is technology changing the world, and how should the world change technology?. Global Perspectives, 2(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1525/gp.2021.27353
77. World Health Organization [WHO]. (2015). Public health implications of excessive use of the internet, computers, smartphones and similar electronic devices: Meeting report. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/184264/9789241509367_eng.pdf?sequence=1
78. Xie, J., Xu, X., Zhang, Y., Tan, Y., Wu, D., Shi, M., & Huang, H. (2023). The effect of short-form video addiction on undergraduates’ academic procrastination: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1298361. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1298361
79. Xiong, S., Chen, J., & Yao, N. (2024). A multidimensional framework for understanding problematic use of short video platforms: The role of individual, social-environmental, and platform factors. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1361497. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1361497
80. Xu, J., Ramayah, T., Arshad, M. Z., Ismail, A., & Jamal, J. (2025). Decoding digital dependency: Flow experience and social belonging in short video addiction among middle-aged and elderly Chinese users. Telematics and Informatics, 96, 102222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2024.102222
81. Xue, J., Huang, H., Guo, Z., Chen, J., & Feng, W. (2025). Adverse childhood experiences and short-form video addiction: A serial mediation model of resilience and life satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 162, 108449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108449
82. Yang, H., Zhang, S., Diao, Z., & Sun, D. (2023). What motivates users to continue using current short video applications? A dual-path examination of flow experience and cognitive lock-in. Telematics and Informatics, 85, 102050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2023.102050
83. Yang, S. Y. (2020). Effects of self-efficacy and self-control on internet addiction in middle school students: A social cognitive theory-driven focus on the mediating influence of social support. Child Health Nursing Research, 26(3), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2020.26.3.357
84. Ye, J. H., He, Z., Yang, X., Lee, Y. S., Nong, W., Ye, J.-N., & Wang, C. L. (2023). Predicting the learning avoidance motivation, learning commitment, and silent classroom behavior of Chinese vocational college students caused by short video addiction. Healthcare, 11(7), 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11070985
85. Ye, J. H., Wu, Y. T., Wu, Y. F., Chen, M. Y., & Ye, J. N. (2022). Effects of short video addiction on the motivation and well-being of Chinese vocational college students. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 847672. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.847672
86. Yılmaz, T. (2023). Sporun bireylerin akıllı telefon kullanımına etkisinin incelenmesi. In E. A. Uluç (Ed.), Spor Bilimleri Üzerine Araştırmalar-VI (81–91). Özgür Yayınları. https://doi.org/10.58830/ozgur.pub246.c1065
87. Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237
88. Zhang, N., Hazarika, B., Chen, K., & Shi, Y. (2023). A cross-national study on the excessive use of short-video applications among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 145, 107752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107752
89. Zhang, W., & Xu, R. (2022). Effect of exercise intervention on internet addiction and autonomic nervous function in college students. BioMed Research International, 2022(1), 5935353. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5935353
90. Zhang, X., Wu, Y., & Liu, S. (2019). Exploring short-form video application addiction: Socio-technical and attachment perspectives. Telematics and Informatics, 42, 101243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2019.101243
91. Zheng, C. (2023). Research on the flow experience and social influences of users of short online videos. A case study of DouYin. Scientific Reports, 13, 3312. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30525-y