Boşanma Sürecinde Ortak Ebeveynlik ve Ortak Velayete İlişkin Bir Derleme

Year 2021, Volume: 18 Issue: 44, 8500 - 8523, 26.12.2021

Ayşegül Sayan Karahan

https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.970966

Abstract

Çocuk yetiştirme, çocuğun gelişimsel gereksinimlerinin karşılanması açısından her ikisi de farklı özelliklere ve öneme sahip ebeveynin ekip çalışması olarak ilgi gören bir çalışma alanı olagelmiştir. Yaşanan toplumsal değişimlere bağlı olarak boşanma oranları artmakta, kadınların işgücüne ve erkeklerin çocuk bakımına katılımı yaygınlaşmaktadır. Bu değişimler doğrultusunda, yeni gelişen kavramlar olarak ortak ebeveynlik ve ortak velayet konularında mevcut tabloyu ortaya koyan ve daha ileri araştırmalara ger-eksinim olduğu görülmektedir. Bazı ülkelerde ortak velayet uygulanmaktayken Türkiye’de uygulanabil-irliği tartışılmaktadır. Bu derleme çalışmasında, ortak velayetin hangi koşullarda etkililiğinin arttığının ve hangi koşullarda dezavantajlar doğurabileceğinin vurgulanması amaçlanmıştır. Ortak velayetin, ebeveynlerle ilişki ve kaynakların sürdürülmesi açısından avantajları vurgulanırken diğer yandan sürekli değişimlerin yaşanması nedeniyle stabiliteye zarar verebilmesi ve boşanmış ebeveynlerin sürekli bağlantısını gerekli kılması gibi dezavantajları bulunmaktadır. Boşanma öncesi ebeveyn çocuk ilişkile-rinin nitelikli olduğu ve ebeveynler arası çatışmalardansa işbirliğinin olduğu durumlarda ortak ve-layetin fayda sağladığı, aksi durumlarda ve ihmal, istismar, şiddet ya da psikopatolojinin varlığı gibi durumlarda ise faydadan çok zarara yol açabileceği vurgulanmaktadır.

Keywords

Ortak Ebeveynlik, Ortak Velayet, Boşanma

A Review Regarding Coparenting and Joint Custody in Divorce Process

Abstract

Childrearing has been an area of interest as a teamwork of parents, both of whom have different characteristics and importance in terms of meeting the developmental needs of the child. Due to social changes, divorce rates are increasing, women's participation in the labor force and men's participation in childcare is widespreading. Due to these changes, descriptive and further research is needed on coparenting and joint custody, as emerging concepts. While joint custody have been practiced in some countries, the applicability in Turkey is under discussion. In this review, it is aimed to emphasize the conditions regarding the effectiveness of joint custody. Joint custody contributes to the maintanance of the relationship and resources with parents, while damaging stability due to the reccurent changes and requiring ongoing connection between parents. Joint custody benefits in cases of qualified pre-divorce parent-child relationship, cooperation rather than conflict between parents; presence of neglect, abuse, violence and psychopathological conditions.It is emphasized that otherwise it can be harmful.

Keywords

Coparenting, joint custody, divorce

References

• Ahrons, C.R. (1994). The good divorce: Keeping your family together when your marriage comes apart. New York: HarperCollins.
• Ahrons, C. R. (2007). Family ties after divorce: Long-term implications for children. Family Process, 46(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2006.00191.x.
• Amato, P. R. ve Afifi, T. D. (2006). Feeling caught between parents: Adult children’s relations with parents and subjective well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(1), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00243.x.
• Amato, P. R., Kane, J. B. ve James, S. (2011). Reconsidering the “good divorce”. Family Relations, 60(5), 511-524. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00666.x.
• Aquilino, W. S. (1994). Later life parental divorce and widowhood: Impact on young adults’ assessment of parent-child relations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 908-922. https://doi.org/10.2307/353602.
• Baude, A., Pearson, J. ve Drapeau, S. (2016) Child Adjustment in Joint Physical Custody Versus Sole Custody: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 57(5), 338-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2016.1185203.
• Baude, A., Sagnes, F. ve Zaouche-Gaudron, C. (2010). Joint physical custody: Exploratory study with children aged 7 to 10. Dialogue, 188(2), 133–146.
• Baum, N. (2003). Divorce process variables and the co-parental relationship and parental role fulfillment of divorced parents. Family Process, 42(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2003.00117.x.
• Baum, N. (2004). Typology of post-divorce parental relationships and behaviors. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 41(3-4), 53-79. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v41n03_03.
• Baum, N. ve Shnit, D. (2003). Divorced parents’ conflict management styles: Self-differentiation and narcissism. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 39(3-4), 37-58. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v39n03_02.
• Bauserman, R. (2002). Child adjustment in joint custody versus sole custody. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 91 –102 https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.1.91.
• Bauserman, R. (2012). A meta-analysis of parental satisfaction, adjustment, and conflict in joint custody and sole custody following divorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 53, 464–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2012.682901.
• Bergstrom, M., Fransson, E., Modin, B., Berlin, M., Gustafsson, P. A. ve Hjern, A. (2015). Fifty moves a year: Is there an association between joint physical custody and psychosomatic problems in children? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 69(8), 769–774. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-205058.
• Bonach, K. (2005). Factors contributing to quality coparenting: Implications for family policy. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 43(3-4), 79-103. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v43n03_05.
• Breivik, K., ve Olweus, D. (2006). Adolescent’s adjustment in four post-divorce family structures: Single mother, stepfather, joint physical custody and single father families. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 44(3–4), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v44n03_07.
• Cancian, M., Meyer, D. R., Brown, P. R., ve Cook, S. T. (2014). Who gets custody now? Dramatic changes in children’s living arrangements after divorce. Demography, 51(4), 1381–1396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0307-8.
• Carlsund, A., Eriksson, U., Löfstedt, P., ve Sellström, E. (2013). Risk behaviour in Swedish adolescents: Is shared physical custody after divorce a risk or a protective factor? European Journal of Public Health, 23(1), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cks011.
• Cashmore, J., Parkinson, P., Weston, R., Patulny, R., Redmond, G., Qu, L., ve Katz, I. (2010). Shared care parenting arrangements since the 2006 family law reforms (Report to the Australian Government Attorney-General’s Department). Sydney, Australia: Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales.
• Christensen, D. H. ve Rettig, K. D. (1996). The relationship of remarriage to post-divorce co-parenting. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 24(1-2), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v24n01_06.
• Cooney, T. M., Hutchinson, K. ve Leather, D. M. (1995). Surviving the breakup? Predictors of parent-adult child relations after parental divorce. Family Relations, 44(2), 153-161. https://doi.org/10.2307/584802.
• Dozier, B. S., Sollie, D. L. ve Stack, S. J. (1993). The effects of postdivorce attachment on coparenting relationships. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 19(3-4), 109-124. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v19n03_08.
• Dush, C. M. K., Kotila, L. E. ve Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J. (2011). Predictors of supportive coparenting after relationship dissolution among at-risk parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(3), 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023652.
• Egeren, L. A. V. ve Hawkins, D. P. (2004). Coming to terms with coparenting: Implications of definition and measurement. Journal of Adult Development, 11(3), 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADE.0000035625.74672.0b.
• Emery, R. (2016). Two homes, one childhood: A parenting plan to last a lifetime. New York, NY: Avery.
• Fagan, J. ve Kaufman, R. (2015). Co-parenting relationships among low-income, unmarried parents: Perspectives of fathers in fatherhood programs. Family Court Review, 53(2), 304-316. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12152.
• Feinberg, M.E. (2002). Coparenting and the transition to parenthood: A framework for prevention. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5(3), 173-195. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019695015110.
• Feinberg, M. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting: A framework for research and intervention. Parenting, 3(2), 95–131. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327922PAR0302_01.
• Feinberg, M. E., Kan, M. L. ve Hetherington, E. M. (2007). The longitudinal influence of coparenting conflict on parental negativity and adolescent maladjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(3), 687-702. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00400.x.
• Ferrante, J. A. (2008). Co-parenting in intact and divorced families: Its impact on young adult adjustment. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Virginia Commonwealth University, VA.
• Frank, S., Hole, C. B., Jacobson, S., Justkowski, R. ve Huyck, M. (1986). Psychological predictors of parents’ sense of confidence and control and self-versus child-focused gratifications. Developmental Psychology, 22(3), 348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.348.
• Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. ve Cherlin, A. J. (1991). Divided families: What happens to children when parents part. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Gable, S., Belsky, J. ve Crnic, K. (1995). Coparenting during the child’s 2nd year: A descriptive account. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3), 609-616. https://doi.org/10.2307/353916.
• Garber, B. D. (2004). Directed co-parenting intervention: Conducting child-centered interventions in parallel with highly conflicted co-parents. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 35(1), 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.35.1.55.
• Goldstein, J., Freud, A., ve Solnit, A. J. (1973). Beyond the best interests of the child. New York, NY: The Free Press. Gürmen, S. (2019). Çocukla gelen ve hiç bitmeyen ilişki: Ortak ebeveynlik. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 22(44), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.31828/tpy1301996120181126m000010.
• Hagquist, C. (2016). Family residency and psychosomatic problems among adolescents in Sweden: The impact of child-parent relations. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, 44(1), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494815610664.
• Hughes, F. M., Gordon, K. C. ve Gaertner, L. (2004). Predicting spouses’ perceptions of their parenting alliance. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(2), 506–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2004.00034.x.
• Jablonska, B. ve Lindberg, L. (2007). Risk behaviours, victimisation and mental distress among adolescents in different family structures. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(8), 656–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0210-3.
• Johnston, J., Kline, M. ve Tschann, J. (1989). Ongoing post-divorce conflict: Effects on children of joint custody and frequent access. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 576–592. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb02748.x.
• Juby, H., Le Bourdais, C. ve Marcil-Gratton, N. (2005). Sharing roles, sharing custody? Couples’ characteristics and children’s living arrangements at separation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(1), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00012.x.
• Katz, L. F. ve Woodin, E. M. (2002). Hostility, hostile detachment, and conflict engagement in marriages: Effects on child and family functioning. Child Development, 73(2), 636–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00428.
• Karataş, E. (2019). Boşanmış aile çocuklarındaki uyum problemleri: Ortak ebeveynlik açısından bir inceleme. (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.) İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Kelly, J. B. (2004). Developing beneficial parenting plan models for children following separation and divorce. Journal of American Academia of Matrimonial Law, 19, 237-254.
• Kitterød, R. H. ve Lyngstad, J. (2012). Untraditional caring arrangements among parents living apart: The case of Norway. Demographic Research, 27(5), 121–152. DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2012.27.5.
• Kocayörük, E. (2010). Ergen gelişiminde aile işlevleri ve baba katılımı. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4(33), 37-45.
• Kolak, A. M. ve Volling, B. L. (2007). Parental expressiveness as a moderator of coparenting and marital relationship quality. Family Relations, 56(5), 467–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00474.x
• Kruk, E. (1993). Promoting co-operative parenting after separation: a therapeutic/interventionist model of family mediation. Journal of Family Therapy, 15(3), 235–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.1993.00757.x.
• Kruk, E. (2012). Arguments for an equal parental responsibility presumption in contested child custody. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 40(1), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.575344.
• Kuzucu, Y. (2011). Değişen babalık rolü ve gelişimine etkisi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4(35), 79-91. doi:10.17066/pdrd.93674.
• Lamb, M.E. (2000). The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage & Family Review, 29(2-3), 23-42 https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v29n02_03.
• Lee, M. (1997). Post-divorce interparental conflict, children's contact with both parents, children's emotional processes, and children's behavioral adjustment. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 27(3-4), 61-82. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v27n03_05.
• Maccoby, E. E. (1994). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. İçinde R. D. Parke, P. A. Ornstein, J. J. Rieser, ve C. Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), A century of developmental psychology (s.589–615). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10155-021.
• Maccoby, E. E., Depner, C. E. ve Mnookin, R. H. (1990). Coparenting in the second year after divorce. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 141–155 https://doi.org/10.2307/352846.
• Maccoby, E.E. ve Mnookin, R.H. (1992). Dividing the child: Social & legal dilemmas of custody. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Macie, K.M. ve Stolberg, A.L. (2003). Assessing parenting after divorce: The co-parenting behavior questionnaire. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage. 39. (1-2). 89-107. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v39n01_06.
• Margolin, G., Gordis, E. B. ve John, R. S. (2001). Coparenting: A link between marital conflict and parenting in two-parent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(1), 3–21.
• Markham, M. S., Ganong, L. H. ve Coleman, M. (2007). Coparental identity and mothers’ cooperation in coparental relationships. Family Relations, 56(4), 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00466.x.
• Marriott, B. H. (2011). Coparenting and father involvement in married and unmarried co-resident couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(1), 296–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00805.x.
• Masardo, A. (2009). Managing shared residence in Britain and France: Questioning a default primary carer model. Içinde K. Rummery, I. Greener, & C. Holden (Eds.), Social policy review 21: Analysis and debate in social policy, 2009 (s.197–214). Bristol: The Policy Press.
• McHale, J. P. (1995). Coparenting and triadic interactions during infancy: The roles of marital distress and child gender. Developmental Psychology, 31(6), 985–996.
• McIntosh, J. E. (2009). Legislating for shared parenting: Exploring some underlying assumptions. Family Court Review, 47, 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1617.2009.01263.x.
• McIntosh, J. E., Pruett, M. K., ve Kelly, J. B. (2014). Parental separation and overnight care of young children, part II: Putting theory into practice. Family Court Review, 52(2), 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12088.
• McIntosh, J., Smyth, B. ve Kelaher, M. (2010). Relationship between overnight care patterns and psycho-emotional development in infants and young children. Içinde J. McIntosh, B. Smyth, M. Kelaher, Y. Wells, ve C. Long (Eds.), Post-separation parenting arrangements and developmental outcomes for infants and children (s.85–168). Canberra, Australia: Report to the Australian Government Attorney-General’s Departement.
• McIntosh, J., Smyth, B., Wells, Y. ve Long, C. (2010). A longitudinal study of school-aged children in high-conflict divorce. Içinde J. McIntosh, B. Smyth, M. Kelaher, Y. Wells, ve C. Long (Eds.), Post-separation parenting arrangements and developmental outcomes for infants and children (s.23–84). Canberra, Australia: Report to the Australian Government Attorney-General’s Department.
• McLanahan, S. ve Beck, A. N. (2010). Parental relationships in fragile families. The Future of Children, 20(2), 17–37. Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Mitcham-Smith, M. ve Henry, W. J. (2007). High-conflict divorce solutions: Parenting coordination as an innovative co-parenting intervention. The Family Journal, 15(4), 368–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480707303751.
• Mullett, E. K. ve Stolberg, A. (1999). The development of the co-parenting behaviors questionnaire. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 31(3-4), 115–137. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v31n03_07.
• Neoh, J., ve Mellor, D. (2010). Shared parenting: Adding children’s voices and their measures of adjustment to the evaluation. Journal of Child Custody, 7, 155–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/15379418.2010.512230.
• Nielsen, L. (2015). Shared physical custody: Does it benefit children? Journal of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers, 28, 79 –139.
• Nielsen, L. (2017). Re-examining the research on parental conflict, coparenting, and custody arrangements. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 23, 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000109.
• Parke, R.D. (2000). Father involvement: A developmental psychological perspective. Marriage & Family Review, 29(2-3), 43-58 https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v29n02_04.
• Pearson, J., ve Thoennes, N. (1990). Custody after divorce: Demographic and attitudinal patterns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079166.
• Poortman, A.R. (2018). Postdivorce parent–child contact and child well-being: The importance of predivorce parental involvement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80, 671–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12474.
• Pruett, M. K., McIntosh, J. E. ve Kelly, J. B. (2014). Parental separation and overnight care of young children, Part I: Consensus through theoretical and empirical integration. Family Court Review, 52(2), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12087.
• Riina, E. M. ve Feinberg, M. E. (2018). The trajectory of coparenting relationship quality across early adolescence: Family, community, and parent gender influences. Journal of Family Psychology, 32(5), 599-609. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000426.
• Roberson, P. N., Nalbone, D. P., Hecker, L. H. ve Miller, J. A. (2010). Adult attachment style as a predictor of coparent relationships postdivorce. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 51(3), 185-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502551003605619.
• Roberson, P. N., Sabo, M. ve Wickel, K. (2011). Internal working models of attachment and postdivorce coparent relationships. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 52(3), 187-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2011.569442.
• Russell, L. T., Beckmeyer, J. J., Coleman, M. ve Ganong, L. (2016). Perceived barriers to postdivorce coparenting: Differences between men and women and associations with coparenting behaviors. Family Relations, 65(3), 450-461. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12198.
• Sandler, I. N., Wheeler, L. A., ve Braver, S. L. (2013). Relations of parenting quality, interparental conflict, and overnights with mental health problems of children in divorcing families with high legal conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(6), 915.
• Shiller, V. M. (1986). Joint versus maternal physical custody for families with latency age boy: Parent characteristics and child adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, 486–489 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1986.tb03481.x
• Sobolewski, J. M., ve Amato, P. R. (2007). Parents’ discord and divorce, parent-child relationships and subjective well-being in early adulthood: Is feeling close to two parents always better than feeling close to one? Social Forces, 85(3), 1105–1124. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2007.0056.
• Sodermans, A. K., Matthijs, K. ve Swicegood, G. (2013). Characteristics of joint physical custody families in Flanders. Demographic Research, 28(29), 821–848. DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2013.28.29.
• Spruijt, E., de Goede, M. ve Vandervalk, I. (2004). Frequency of contact with nonresident fathers and adolescent well-being: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 40(3–4), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1300/J087v40n03_05.
• Spruijt, E. ve Duindam, V. (2010). Joint physical custody in the Netherlands and the well-being of children. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 51(1), 65–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502550903423362.
• Steinbach, A. (2019). Children’s and parents’ wellbeing in joint physical custody: A literature review. Family Process. 58(2), 353-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12372.
• Stright, A. D. ve Bales, S. S. (2003). Coparenting quality: contributions of child and parent characteristics. Family Relations, 52(3), 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00232.x.
• Teubert, D. ve Pinquart, M. (2010). The association between coparenting and child adjustment: A meta-analysis. Parenting, 10(4), 286–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2010.492040.
• Umemura, T., Christopher, C., Mann, T., Jacobvitz, D. ve Hazen, N. (2015). Coparenting problems with toddlers predict children’s symptoms of psychological problems at age 7. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46(6), 981-996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0536-0.
• Vanassche, S., Sodermans, A. K., Matthijs, K. ve Swicegood, G. (2013). Commuting between two parental households: The association between joint physical custody and adolescent wellbeing following divorce. Journal of Family Studies, 19(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2013.19.2.139.
• Van der Heijden, F., Poortman, A.R. ve Van der Lippe, T. (2016). Children’s postdivorce residence arrangements and parental experienced time pressure. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(2), 468–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12283.
• Vanderkool, L. ve Pearson, J. (1983). Mediating divorce disputes: Mediator behaviors, styles and roles. Family Relations, 32(4), 557-566.
• Van Krieken, R. (2005). The ‘best interests of the child’ and parental separation: On the “civilizing of parents.” The Modern Law Review, 68(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/583696.
• Walker, J. (1993). Co-operative parenting post-divorce: possibility or pipedream? Journal of Family Therapy, 15(3), 273–293. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.1993.00759.x.
• Warshak, R. A. (2014). Social science and parenting plans for young children: A consensus report. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 20(1), 46–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000005.
• Whiteside, M.F. (1998).The parental alliance following divorce: An overview. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 24(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1998.tb01060.x.