Optimal Video Length Effect on Flow Experience and Perceived Learning: A Repeated Measure Experimental Design with Randomization

Year 2024, Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 142 - 157, 01.01.2024

Ömer Demir , Bengi Birgili

https://doi.org/10.17275/per.24.9.11.1

Abstract

Videos are commonly used in education. Benefitting from instructional videos in learning processes empowers students’ academic outcomes. In spite of this, educators have no consensus on optimal video length. There is a need to cease speculations on optimal video length since most of them have been relying only on context-based tips or best practices. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to delve into the optimal video length discussion through the lens of perceived learning and flow experience. We employed repeated measure experimental design with randomization of treatment order for each participant. Twenty-eight university students from two big cities in Türkiye volunteered to participate in the study. Short, medium, and long videos were compared via Friedman test. Results of this study substantiated instructional video length does not seem to affect students’ perceived learning and their overall flow experience. However, they tend to concentrate and focus better on short videos. We call for an end to optimal video length discussion for videos shorter than 10 minutes, especially in terms of learning. The implications relying on the findings were discussed in terms of differences between “thinking to be in flow” and “being actually in flow.” The recommendations are given in detail in the full text.

Keywords

optimal instructional video length, perceived learning, flow experience, concentration and focus

References

• Adnan, M. (2017). Perceptions of senior-year ELT students for flipped classroom: a materials development course. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(3-4), 204-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1301958
• Alemdağ, E. (2022). Effects of instructor-present videos on learning, cognitive load, motivation, and social presence: A meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, Advance publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11154-w
• Al-Khasawneh, M., Sharabati, A. A. A., Al-Haddad, S., Tbakhi, R., & Abusaimeh, H. (2022). The adoption of TikTok application using TAM model. International Journal of Data and Network Science, 6(4), 1389-1402. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.ijdns.2022.5.012
• Al-Naabi, I. S. (2020). Is it worth flipping? The impact of flipped classroom on EFL students’ grammar. English Language Teaching, 13(6), 64-75. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n6p64
• Albayrak, E., Güngören, Ö. C., & Horzum, M. B. (2014). Algılanan öğrenme ölçeğinin Türkçe'ye uyarlaması [Adaptation of perceived learning scale into Turkish]. Ondokuz Mayıs University Journal of Faculty of Education, 33(1), 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.7822/egt252
• Asurian. (2019, November 21). Americans check their phones 96 times a day. https://www.asurion.com/press-releases/americans-check-their-phones-96-times-a-day/
• Birgili, B., & Demir, Ö. (2022). An explanatory sequential mixed-method research on the full-scale implementation of flipped learning in the first years of the world's first fully flipped university: Departmental differences. Computers & Education, 176, Article e104352. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.compedu.2021.104352
• Beege, M., Ninaus, M., Schneider, S., Nebel, S., Schlemmel, J., Weidenmüller, J., Moeller, K., & Rey, G. D. (2020). Investigating the effects of beat and deictic gestures of a lecturer in educational videos. Computers & Education, 156, Article e103955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103955
• Beege, M., Schneider, S., Nebel S., Häßler, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Mood-affect congruency: Exploring the relation between learners’ mood and the affective charge of educational videos. Computers & Education, 123, 85-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.05.001
• Bennett, S., & Maton, K. (2010). Beyond the ‘digital natives’ debate: Towards a more nuanced understanding of students' technology experiences. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), 321-331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00360.x
• Brame, C. J. (2016). Effective educational videos: principles and guidelines for maximizing student learning from video content. CBE Life Sciences Education, 15(4), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-03-0125
• British Chamber of Commerce. (2018, February 7). In Turkey, smartphones users check their phones every 13 minutes. https://www.bcct.org.tr/news/turkey-smartphones-users-check-phones-every-13-minutes/65076
• Buil, I., Catalán, S., & Martínez, E. (2019). The influence of flow on learning outcomes: An empirical study on the use of clickers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(1), 428-439. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12561
• Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293-332. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2
• Chen, L.-T., Liu, L., & Tretheway, P. (2021). Using multilayer videos for remote learning: Videos of session guidance, content instruction, and activity. Computers in the Schools, 38(4), 322-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2021.1989220
• Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01320076
• Creighton, T. B. (2018). Digital natives, digital immigrants, digital learners: An international empirical integrative review of the literature. Education Leadership Review, 19(1), 132-140.
• Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research. Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Pearson Press.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing flow in work and play. Jossey-Bass Press.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology. In M. Csikszentmihalyi & I. S. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 15-35). Cambridge University Press.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row Press.
• Çakıroğlu, Ü., Saylan, E., Çevik, İ., & Özkan, A. (2022). Qualifying with different types of quizzes in an online EFL course: Influences on perceived learning and academic achievement. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 23(3), 191-211. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v23i3.5894
• Dirgahayu, T. (2017, September). Flipping software engineering course to improve students’ practical skills [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Education, Science, and Technology (ICEST 2017) (Vol. 149), Makassar city, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/icest-17.2017.45
• Djamaâ, S. (2020). Lecture in the living room, homework in the classroom: The effects of flipped instruction on graduate EFL students’ exam performance. Computers in the Schools, 37(3), 141-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2020.1795513
• Dong, C., & Goh, P. S. (2015). Twelve tips for the effective use of videos in medical education. Medical Teacher, 37(2), 140-145. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159x.2014.943709
• Doolittle, P. E., Bryant, L. H., & Chittum, J. R. (2015). Effects of degree of segmentation and learner disposition on multimedia learning. British Journal of Educational Technology 46(6), 1333-1343. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12203
• Evens, M., Empsen, M., & Hustinx, W. A. (2022). Literature review on 360-degree video as an educational tool: Towards design guidelines. Journal of Computers in Education. Ahead of publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-022-00233-z
• Fidan, M., & Debbag, M. (2023). Comparing the effectiveness of instructional video types: An in-depth analysis on pre-service teachers for online learning. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 39(3), 575-586. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2041905
• Friedman, M. (1940). A comparison of alternative tests of significance for the problem of m rankings. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 11(1), 86-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177731944
• Gagne, R. M. (1988). Principles of instructional design (1st ed.). Harcourt College Press.
• Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Press.
• Gaughan, J. E. (2014). The flipped classroom in world history. The History Teacher, 47(2), 221-244. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43264225
• Giannakos, M. N., Jaccheri, L., & Krogstie, J. (2016). How video usage styles affect student engagement? implications for video-based learning environments. In Y. Li et al. (Eds.), State-of-the-Art and future directions of smart learning, lecture notes in educational technology (pp. 157-163). http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-868-7_18
• Gray, J. A., & DiLoreto, M. (2016). The effects of student engagement, student satisfaction, and perceived learning in online learning environments. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 11(1), EJ1103654. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1103654.pdf
• Guo, P. J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R. (2014, March 4-5). How video production affects student engagement: An empirical study of MOOC videos [Paper Presentation]. Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Learning at Scale (pp. 41-50), Atlanta, Georgia, USA. https://doi.org/10.1145/2556325.2566239
• Hamel, C., & Viau-Guay, A. (2019). Using video to support teachers’ reflective practice : A literature review. Cogent Education, 6(1), Article e1673689. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2019.1673689
• Holm, S. (1979). A simple sequential rejective method procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6, 65-70. https://doi.org/10.2307/4615733
• Ibrahim, M., Antonenko, P. D., Greenwood, C.M., & Wheeler, D. (2012). Effects of segmenting, signaling, and weeding on learning from educational video. Learning, Media and Technology, 37(3), 220-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2011.585993
• Kay, R. H., & Mann, A. (2022). Effective video use in online learning. In R. Kay, & W. J. Hunter (Eds.), Thriving online: A guide for busy educators (pp. 298-308). Ontario Tech University. https://doi.org/10.51357/TMSM9420.
• Koo, C. L., Demps, E. L., Farris, C., Bowman, J. D., Panahi, L., & Boyle, P. (2016). Impact of flipped classroom design on student performance and perceptions in a pharmacotherapy course. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 80(2), Article e33. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe80233
• Lai, C. L., & Hwang, G. J. (2016). A self-regulated flipped classroom approach to improving students’ learning performance in a mathematics course. Computers & Education, 100, 126-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.05.006
• Liao, C. H., & Wu, J. Y. (2023). Learning analytics on video-viewing engagement in a flipped statistics course: Relating external video-viewing patterns to internal motivational dynamics and performance. Computers & Education, 197, Article e104754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104754
• Lipp, A., Davis, R., Peter, R., & Davies, J. (2014). The use of social media among health care professionals within an online postgraduate diabetes diploma course. Practical Diabetes 31(1), 14-17. https://doi.org/10.1002/pdi.1821
• Long, T., Logan, J., & Waugh, M. (2016). Students’ perceptions of the value of using videos as a pre-class learning experience in the flipped classroom. TechTrends, 60, 245-252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0045-4.
• Mayer, R. E. (2012). Cognitive learning. In N. M. Seel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 594-596). Springer Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_390
• Merkt, M., Hoppe, A., Bruns, G., Ewerth, R., & Huff, M. (2022). Pushing the button: Why do learners pause online videos? Computers & Education, 176, Article e104355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104355
• Meseguer-Martinez, A., Ros-Galvez, A., & Rosa-Garcia, A. (2016). Satisfaction with online teaching videos: A quantitative approach. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 57(1), 62-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2016.1143859
• O’Malley, C., McLaughlin, P., & Porcaro, P. (2017). Inclusive STEM: Closing the learning loop. In C. Reidsema, L. Kavanagh, R. Hadgraft & N. Smith (Eds.), The flipped classroom: Practice and practices in higher education (1st ed., pp. 151-161). Springer Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3413-8_9
• Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations. Oxford University Press.
• Pi, Z., & Hong, J. (2016). Learning process and learning outcomes of video podcasts including the instructor and ppt slides: A Chinese case. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(2), 135-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2015.1060133
• Qin, M. X., & Tan, X. (2020). Examining a SPOC experiment in a foundational course: Design, creation and implementation. Interactive Learning Environments. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1722710
• Ramos, J. L., Cattaneo, A. A. P., de Jong, F. P. C. M., & Espadeiro, R. G. (2021). Pedagogical models for the facilitation of teacher professional development via video-supported collaborative learning. A review of the state of the art. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 54(5), 695-718. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2021.1911720
• Rosen, L., & Samuel, A. (2015, June). Managing yourself: Conquering digital distraction. Harvard Business Review, 110-113. https://hbr.org/2015/06/conquering-digital-distraction
• Rossin, D., Ro, Y. K., Klein, B. D., & Guo, Y. M. (2009). The effects of flow on learning outcomes in an online information management course. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(1), 87-98. https://aisel.aisnet.org/jise/vol20/iss1/9
• Rotellar, C., & Cain, J. (2016). Research, perspectives, and recommendations on implementing the flipped classroom. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 80(2), Article e34. https://dx.doi.org/10.5688%2Fajpe80234
• Rovai, A. P., Wighting, M. J., Baker, J. D., & Grooms, L. D. (2009). Development of an instrument to measure perceived cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning in traditional and virtual classroom higher education settings. The Internet and Higher Education, 12(1), 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.10.002
• Sablić, M., Mirosavljević, A., & Škugor, A. (2021). Video-based learning (VBL)—Past, present and future: an Overview of the research published from 2008 to 2019. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 26, 1061-1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-020-09455-5
• Slemmons, K., Anyanwu, K., Hames, J., Grabski, D., Mlsna, J., Simkins, E., & Cook, P. (2018). The impact of video length on learning in a middle-level flipped science setting: Implications for diversity inclusion. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 27, 469-479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-018-9736-2
• Sahranç, Ü. (2008). Bir durumluk akış modeli: Stres kontrolü, genel özyeterlik, durumluk kaygı, yaşam doyumu ve akış ilişkileri [A state flow model: The relationships among stres control, general self-efficacy, state anxiety, life satisfaction and state flow]. Sakarya University Journal of Education Faculty, 16, 122-144.
• Sezer, B., & Abay, E. (2018). Looking at the impact of the flipped classroom model in medical education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 63(6), 853-868. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1452292
• Schallert, S., Lavicza, Z., & Vandervieren, E. (2020). Merging flipped classroom approaches with the 5E inquiry model: a design heuristic. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739x.2020.1831092
• Schüler, J. (2008). Arousal of flow experience in a learning setting and its effects on exam performance and affect. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie [German Journal of Educational Psychology], 21(3/4), 217-227. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652.21.3.217
• Shaw, R., & Patra, B. Kr. (2022). Classifying students based on cognitive state in flipped learning pedagogy. Future Generation Computer Systems, 126, 305-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2021.08.018
• Shoufan, A. (2019). What motivates university students to like or dislike an educational online video? A sentimental framework. Computers & Education, 134, 132-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.008
• Su, F., Zou, D., & Wang, L. (2023). Student engagement and teaching presence in blended learning and emergency remote teaching. Journal of Computers in Education. Ahead of publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00263-1
• Surrency, M., & Barbie, D. (2018, June 25). Still relevant? Gagné’s nine events of instruction in the online world [Paper Presentation]. In T. Bastiaens et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of EdMedia: World Conference on Educational Media and Technology (pp. 835-840). Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/184285/
• Talkingtree. (2020). How long should videos be? The ideal length for marketing. https://www.talkingtreecreative.com/blog/video-marketing-2/the-impact-of-video-length-on-engagement/
• Thompson, P., Xiu, Y., Tsotsoros, J. D., & Robertson, M. A. (2021). The effect of designing and segmenting instructional video. Journal of Information Technology Education, 20, 173-200. https://doi.org/10.28945/4756
• Tiernan, P., & Farren, M. (2017). Digital literacy and online video: Undergraduate students’ use of online video for coursework. Education and Information Technologies, 22, 3167-3185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9575-4
• Tomaszewski, R. (2023). Library snackables: A study of one-minute library videos. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 49(2), Article e102647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2022.102647
• Vayre, E., & Vonthron, A. M. (2019). Relational and psychological factors affecting exam participation and student achievement in online college courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 43, Article e100671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2018.07.001
• Wang, P. Y., Chiu, M. C., & Lee, Y. T. (2020). Effects of video lecture presentation style and questioning strategy on learner flow experience. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 58(4), 473-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2020.1754272
• Wang, X. (2021). Cognitive and affective learning in English as a foreign language/English as a second language instructional-learning contexts: Does teacher Immediacy matter? Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article e759784. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.759784
• Yu, Z., & Gao, M (2022). Effects of video length on a flipped english classroom. Sage Open, 12(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211068474