BibTex RIS Cite

Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Neurobiology, Diagnostic Problems and Clinical Features

Year 2010, Volume: 2 Issue: 1, 75 - 116, 01.03.2010

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic, lifelong neurobeha-vioral disorder with childhood-onset, which seriously impairs the affected adults in a variety of daily living functions like academic, social and occupational functioning. Prevalence of ADHD declines with age in the general population. The approximate prevalence rates of ADHD is 8% in childhood, 6% in adolescence and 4% in adulthood. The unclear validity of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for this condition can lead to reduced prevalence rates by underestimation of the prevalence of adult ADHD. The disorder is characterized by behavioral symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity across the life cycle and is associated with considerable morbidity and disability. Although its etiology remains unclear, considerable evidence documents its strong neurobiological and genetic underpinnings. ADHD is associated with a high percentage of comorbid psychiatric disorders in every lifespan. In adulthood between 65-89% of all patients with ADHD suffer from one or more additional psychiatric disorders, above all mood and anxiety disorders, substance use disorders and personality disorders, which complicate the clinical picture in terms of diagnostics, treatment and outcome issues. The high comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders, the resulting deficits in social competences and risky health behavior that often go along with a diminished life quality must be stressed in these patients. Preventive and therapeutic interventions should be taken at an early stage to counteract the possible negative influences of ADHD on functioning and relationships. In this paper, we reviewed the historical aspects, epidemiology, neurobiology, comorbidity, diagnostic difficulties and clinical features of adult ADHD.

References

  • Hechtman L, McGough JJ. Dikkat Eksikliği Bozuklukları. In: Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (Çev: Öner Ö, Aysev A.). Aydın H, Bozkurt A. (Editörler)., 8.baskı. Ankara, Güneş Tıp Kitabevi. 2007; 3183-3205.
  • Öner Ö, Arsev AS. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Arsev AS, Taner YI, (edi- törler). Çocuk ve Ergen Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları’nda. İstanbul, Golden Print. 2007; 397-421.
  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners K, Demler O. et al. The Prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:716–723.
  • Thome J, Jacobs KA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a 19th century children’s book. Eur Psychiatry 2004; 19:303–306.
  • Doyle BB. Understanding and Treating Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. 1st Ed., Washington, London, American Psychiatric Publishing. 2006;1-313.
  • Barkley RA, Murphy KR, Fischer M. Attention Deficit Hyperctivity Disorder in Adults. What the Science Says. 1st Ed., Newyork, London, The Guilford Press. 2008:1-467.
  • Greydanus DE, Pratt HD, Patel DR. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder across the lifespan. The Child, Adolescent, and Adult Dis Mon 2007; 53:70-131.
  • Adler LA, Spencer TJ, Stein MA, Newcorn JH. Best practices in adult ADHD: Epidemiology, impairments, and differential diagnosis. CNS Spectr 2008;13:2-19.
  • Shorter E. A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry. 1st Ed., New York, Oxford University Press. 2005:32-34.
  • Schneider M, Retz W, Coogan A. Thome J, Rösler M. Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – A neurological view. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256:32–34.
  • Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Mick E. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. J Pediatr Psychol 2007; 32:631–642.
  • McGough JJ, McCracken JT. Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Moving beyond DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1673-1675.
  • Martin A. The hard work of growing up with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:1575- 1577.
  • Clarke S, Kohn HMR. Attention deficit disorder: not just for children. Int Med J 2005; 35:721-725.
  • Rickel AU, Brown RT. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults. 1st Ed., Germany, Hogrefe Huber Publishers. 2007:1-57.
  • Weiss M, Hetchman LT, Weis G. ADHD in Adults. A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis and Treatment. 1st Ed. Maryland, John Hopkins University Pres. 1999:1- 345.
  • Schlander M, Schwarz O, Trott GE. Who cares for patients with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16:430- 438.
  • Motavallı N. Kentsel kesimde Türk İlkokul çocuklarında “Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunun” Nozolojik bağlamda prevalansının araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). İstan- bul: İstanbul Üniversitesi İstanbul Tıp Fakültesi;1994.
  • Şenol S. Dikkat Eksikliği yıkıcı davranış bozukluklarının klinik özellikleri, aynı grup ve diğer DSM-IV tanılarıyla birliktelikleri, risklerin ve tedavi eğiliminin belirlenmesi (Uz- manlık tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1996.
  • Albayrak C. Bursa ilinde bir ilkokul örnekleminde Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozuk- luğu sıklığı ve ilgili sosyodemografik özellikler (Uzmanlık tezi). Bursa: Uludağ Üniver- sitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1998.
  • Yazgan Y. Hiperaktif çocuk büyüdüğünde: Erişkinlikte Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Galenos 2006; 121:135-143.
  • Rasmussen P, Gillberg C. Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: A controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39:1424-1431.
  • Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, LaPadula M. Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, Occupational rank and Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993; 50:565-576.
  • Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. The persistence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 2002; 111:279-289.
  • Yargıç İ, Özdemiroğlu FA. Erişkinlerde Dikkat Eksikliği ve Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Işık E, Taner E, Işık U. (Editörler). Güncel Klinik Psikiyatri’de. İstanbul, Golden Print. 2008; 477-493.
  • Fayyad J, DeGraaf R, Kessler R, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, Demyttenaere K. et al. Cross-national prevalence and correlates of Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190:402-409.
  • Tamam L, Tuğlu C, Karataş C, Özcan S. Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with bipolar I disorder in remission: Preliminary study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 60:480–485.
  • Tamam L, Karakuş G, Özpoyraz N. Comorbidity of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder: prevalence and clinical correlates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008; 807:406-408.
  • Toksöz K. Alkol Bağımlılığı ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 2000.
  • Güneş VD. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocuk ve Ergenlerin Ana Babalarında Psikiyatrik Özellikler ve DEHB’nun Araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1999.
  • Taybıll B. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocukların Anne ve Babala- rında Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Belirtilerinin Taranması (Uzmanlık tezi). İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1999.
  • Tuğlu. C. Dikkat Eksikliği / Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocukların Babalarında Bu Tanının ve Ruhsal Durumun Gözden Geçirilmesi (Uzmanlık tezi). Edirne: Trakya Üni- versitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1996.
  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC, Bober M, Cadogen E. Gender effects on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults: Revisited. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 692–700.
  • Quinn PO. Treating adolescent girls and women with ADHD: Gender-specific issues. J Clin Psychol 2005; 61:579–587.
  • Wolf LE, Wasserstein J. Adult ADHD-concluding thoughts. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001;931:396-408.
  • Rommelse NNJ, Altink ME, DeSonneville LMJ. Are motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility dead ends in ADHD? J Abnorm Child Psychol 2007; 35: 957–967.
  • Stahl SM. Temel Psikofarmakoloji. (Çev: Taneli B, Taneli Y.). 2.baskı., Ankara, Yelkovan :Yayıncılık. 2003; 59-467.
  • Cabral P. Attention deficit disorders: Are we barking up the wrong tree? Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2006; 10:66–77.
  • Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 2008; 121:358-365.
  • Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N. Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 60: 1071-1080.
  • Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 2002; 288:1740-1748.
  • Rösler M, Retz W, Thome J. Psychopathological rating scales for diagnostic use in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256:3-11.
  • Haberstick BC, Timberlake D, Hopfer CJ, Lessem JM, Ehringer MA, Hewitt JK. Genetic and environmental contributions to retrospectively reported DSM-IV childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Med 2008; 38:1057–1066.
  • Tuğlu C. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunun genetiği. 3P Psikiyatri, Psikoloji, Psikofarmakoloji Dergisi 2004;12(2):89-94.
  • Thapar A, Langley K, Asherson P, Gill M. Gene-environment interplay in attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder and the importance of a developmental perspective. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190:1-3.
  • Todd RD, Neuman RJ. Gene environment ınteractions in the development of combined type ADHD. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007;144:971–975.
  • Pineda DA, Palacio LG, Puerta IC, Mercha’n V, Arango CP, Galvis AY. et al. Environmental influences that affect attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Study of a genetic isolate. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16: 337–346.
  • Knopik VS, Heath AC, Jacob T, Slutske WS, Bucholz KK, Madden PAF. et al. Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD. Disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Psychol Med 2006; 36:1461–1471.
  • Tuğlu C, Ayas M, Abay E. Erişkinlerde Dikkat Eksikliği/Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Psiki- yatri Bülteni 1995; 3:142-144.
  • Murphy P, Schachar R. Use of self-ratings in the assessment of symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:1156– 1159.
  • Wender PH. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children, Adolescents and Adults. 1st Ed., Newyork, Oxford University Pres. 2000: 1-271.
  • Barkley RA, Biederman J. Toward a broader definition of the age-of-onset criterion for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36:1204-1210.
  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T. Diagnosing Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Are late onset and subthreshold diagnoses valid? Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:1720–1729.
  • Shur S, Gau F. Parental and family factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Taiwanese children. Aust NZ J Psychiatry, 2007; 41:688-696.
  • Minde K, Eakin L, Hechtman L. The psychosocial functioning of children and spouses of adults with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003; 44:637–646.
  • Wasserstein J. Diagnostic issues for adolescents and adults with ADHD. J Clin Psychol 2005; 61:535–547.
  • Young JL. Grown Up. A Guide to Adolescent and Adult Attention Deficit Hyperctivity Disorder. 1st Ed., Newyork, London, W. W. Norton & Company Pres. 2007: 1-303.
  • Safren SA, Perlman CA, Sprich S, Otto. MW. Mastering Your Adult ADHD. A Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Program. 1st Ed., New York, Oxford University Pres. 2005;5- 146.
  • Tuğlu C. Bipolar bozukluk ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu arasındaki ilişki. Duygudurum Bozuklukları 2001;5: 247-351.
  • Manassis K, Tannock R, Young A. Cognition in anxious children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison with clinical and normal children. Behav Brain Func 2007; 3:4-14.
  • Pekcanlar A. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunda komorbidite, DSM-IV belirti sıklığı ve aile işlevleri (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1998.
  • Soykan AA. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu olan çocukların ruhsal ve organik yönden araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1991.
  • Tahiroğlu YA. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu tanısı alan çocukların sosyodemografik özellikleri, eşlik eden bozukluklar ve tedavi yaklaşımları (Uzmanlık tezi). Adana: Çukurova Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi;2003.
  • Sobanski E. Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256: 26–31.
  • Sobanski E, Brüggemann D, Alm B. Psychiatric comorbidity and functional impairment in a clinically referred sample of adults with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007; 11:712-718.
  • Sobanski E, Bruggemann D, Alm B. Subtype differences in adults with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with regard to ADHD-symptoms, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial adjustment. Eur Psychiatry 2008; 23: 142-149.
  • McGough JJ, Smalley SL, McCracken JT. Psychiatric comorbidity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Findings from multiplex families. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1621–1627.
  • Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E. Young adult outcome of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2006; 36:167–179.
  • Fischer AG, Bau CHD, Grevet EH. The role of comorbid major depressive disorder in the clinical presentation of adult ADHD. J Psychiatr Res 2007; 41:991–996.
  • Altfas JR. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adults in obezity treatment. BMC Psychiatry 2002; 2:9.
  • Fleming JP, Levy LD, Levitan RD. Symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in severely obese women. Eat Weight Disord 2005; 10:10-13.
  • Davis C, Levitan RD, Smith M. Tweed S, Curtis C. Associations among overeating, overweight, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A structural equation modelling approach. Eat Behav 2006; 7:266–274.
  • Wilson JJ. ADHD and Substance use disorders: Developmental aspects and the ımpact of stimulant treatment. Am J Addict 2007; 16:5–13.
  • Faraone SV, Wilens TE, Petty C, Antshel K, Spencer T, Biederman J. Substance use among ADHD adults: Implications of late onset and subthreshold diagnoses. Am J Addict 2007; 16:24-34.
  • Putnis AL. Substance use among young offenders: Thrills, bad feelings, or bad behavior? Subst Use Misuse 2006; 41:415–422.
  • Kalbag AS, Levin FR. Adult ADHD and substance abuse: Diagnostic and treatment ıssues. Subst Use Misuse 2005; 40:1955–1981.
  • Adler LA. Familial transmission of ADHD and psychoactive substance use disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:11-12.
  • Szobot CM. Rohde LA, Bukstein O, Molina BSG, Martins C. Is attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder associated with illicit substance use disorders in male adolescents? A community-based case–control study. Addiction 2007; 102:1122– 1130.
  • Faraone SV, Biederman J. Wilens TE, Adamson JA. Naturalistic study of the effects of pharmacotherapy on substance use disorders among ADHD adults. Psychol Med 2007; 37:1743–1752.
  • Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Does Childhood treatment of ADHD with stimulant medication affect substance abuse in adulthood? Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:553-555.
  • Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S. Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? a meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics 2003; 111;179-185.
  • McClernon FJ, Kollins SH, Lutz AM. Effects of smoking abstinence on adult smokers with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: results of a preliminary study. Psychopharmacology 2008; 197: 95–105.
  • Poltavski DV, Petros T. Effects of transdermal nicotine on attention in adult non- smokers with and without attentional deficits. Physiol Behav 2006; 87:614–624.
  • McClernon FJ, Fuemmeler BF, Kollins SH. Interactions between genotype and retrospective ADHD symptoms predict lifetime smoking risk in a sample of young adults. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10:117–127.
  • Gehricke JG, Whalen CK, Jamner LD. The reinforcing effects of nicotine and stimulant medication in the everyday lives of adult smokers with ADHD: A preliminary examination. Nicotine Tob Res 2006; 8:37–47.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance. United States. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report. [serial online]. 2007. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/YRBS/.
  • Rodriguez D, Tercyak KP, McGovern JA. Effects of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on development of nicotine dependence from mid adolescence to young adulthood. J Pediatr Psychol 2008; 33:563–575.
  • Flory K, Lynam DR. The relation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: What role does conduct disorder play? Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2003; 6:1-16.
  • Sprafkin J, Gadow KD, Weiss M. Psychiatric comorbidity in ADHD symptom subtypes in clinic and community adults. J Atten Disord 2007; 11:114-124.
  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Spencer TJ, Mick E, Monuteaux MC, Aleardi M. Functional impairments in adults with self-reports of diagnosed ADHD: A controlled study of 1001 adults in the community. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67:524-540.
  • Able SL, Johnston JA, Adler LA, Swindle RW. Functional and psychosocial impairment in adults with undiagnosed ADHD. Psychol Med 2007; 37:97–107.

Erişkin Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu: Nörobiyoloji, Tanı Sorunları ve Klinik Özellikler

Year 2010, Volume: 2 Issue: 1, 75 - 116, 01.03.2010

Abstract

Dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğu (DEHB) çocukluk döneminde başlayan, yaşam boyu süren, etkilenen erişkinlerin akademik, sosyal ve iş yaşamlarındaki işlevsellikleri gibi birçok alanda günlük işlevselliği ciddi şekilde bozan nöropsikiyatrik bir bozukluktur. Genel toplumda DEHB yaygınlığı yaşla birlikte azalır. DEHB yaygınlığı yaklaşık olarak çocukluk döneminde %8, ergenlikte %6 ve erişkinlikte %4 civarındadır. DSM-IV tanı ölçütlerinin erişkin DEHB'ye uygulanma-sındaki güçlükler ve tanı sorunlarının, erişkin DEHB yaygınlığının beklenenden daha düşük görünmesine neden olabileceği belirtilmektedir. Bu bozukluk yaşam boyu gözlenen dikkat eksikliği, hiperaktivite ve dürtüsellik gibi davranışsal belirtiler ve bu belirtilerin yol açtığı belirgin morbidite ve yeti yitimi ile karakterizedir. Etiyolojisi kesin olarak ortaya konamamış olsa da, elde edilen çok sayıda bulgu hastalığın gelişiminde nörobiyolojik ve genetik nedenlerin önemli rol oynadığını göstermektedir. Yaşamın her döneminde DEHB tanısına çok sayıda diğer psikiyatrik bozukluk eştanısı eşlik etmektedir. Erişkin DEHB tanısı almış hastaların %65- 89'unda en az bir ya da daha fazla başka bir psikiyatrik bozukluk bulunur. En sık görülen eştanılar duygudurum ve anksiyete bozuklukları, kişilik bozuklukları ve madde kullanım bozukluklarıdır. Hastalarda gözlenen yüksek psikiyatrik eştanı oranları tanı, tedavi ve sonlanım açısından klinik tabloyu kötüleştirmektedir. Bu hastalarda saptanan psikiyatrik eştanılar, bunların neden olduğu sosyal yeti yitimi ve riskli davranışlar ve eşlik eden azalmış yaşam kalitesi, hastalık sürecinde üstünde durulması gereken önemli unsurlardır. DEHB'nin işlevsellik ve kişilerarası ilişkiler üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerini giderebilmek için gerekli önleyici ve terapötik girişimlere çok erken dönemde başlanması gereklidir. Bu yazıda erişkin DEHB'nin tarihçesi ve sıklığı, nörobiyolojisi, eştanılar, tanı konurken karşılaşılan güçlükler ve hastaların klinik özellikleri gözden geçirilmiştir.

References

  • Hechtman L, McGough JJ. Dikkat Eksikliği Bozuklukları. In: Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (Çev: Öner Ö, Aysev A.). Aydın H, Bozkurt A. (Editörler)., 8.baskı. Ankara, Güneş Tıp Kitabevi. 2007; 3183-3205.
  • Öner Ö, Arsev AS. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Arsev AS, Taner YI, (edi- törler). Çocuk ve Ergen Ruh Sağlığı ve Hastalıkları’nda. İstanbul, Golden Print. 2007; 397-421.
  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners K, Demler O. et al. The Prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:716–723.
  • Thome J, Jacobs KA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a 19th century children’s book. Eur Psychiatry 2004; 19:303–306.
  • Doyle BB. Understanding and Treating Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. 1st Ed., Washington, London, American Psychiatric Publishing. 2006;1-313.
  • Barkley RA, Murphy KR, Fischer M. Attention Deficit Hyperctivity Disorder in Adults. What the Science Says. 1st Ed., Newyork, London, The Guilford Press. 2008:1-467.
  • Greydanus DE, Pratt HD, Patel DR. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder across the lifespan. The Child, Adolescent, and Adult Dis Mon 2007; 53:70-131.
  • Adler LA, Spencer TJ, Stein MA, Newcorn JH. Best practices in adult ADHD: Epidemiology, impairments, and differential diagnosis. CNS Spectr 2008;13:2-19.
  • Shorter E. A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry. 1st Ed., New York, Oxford University Press. 2005:32-34.
  • Schneider M, Retz W, Coogan A. Thome J, Rösler M. Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – A neurological view. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256:32–34.
  • Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Mick E. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. J Pediatr Psychol 2007; 32:631–642.
  • McGough JJ, McCracken JT. Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Moving beyond DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1673-1675.
  • Martin A. The hard work of growing up with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:1575- 1577.
  • Clarke S, Kohn HMR. Attention deficit disorder: not just for children. Int Med J 2005; 35:721-725.
  • Rickel AU, Brown RT. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults. 1st Ed., Germany, Hogrefe Huber Publishers. 2007:1-57.
  • Weiss M, Hetchman LT, Weis G. ADHD in Adults. A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis and Treatment. 1st Ed. Maryland, John Hopkins University Pres. 1999:1- 345.
  • Schlander M, Schwarz O, Trott GE. Who cares for patients with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16:430- 438.
  • Motavallı N. Kentsel kesimde Türk İlkokul çocuklarında “Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunun” Nozolojik bağlamda prevalansının araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). İstan- bul: İstanbul Üniversitesi İstanbul Tıp Fakültesi;1994.
  • Şenol S. Dikkat Eksikliği yıkıcı davranış bozukluklarının klinik özellikleri, aynı grup ve diğer DSM-IV tanılarıyla birliktelikleri, risklerin ve tedavi eğiliminin belirlenmesi (Uz- manlık tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1996.
  • Albayrak C. Bursa ilinde bir ilkokul örnekleminde Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozuk- luğu sıklığı ve ilgili sosyodemografik özellikler (Uzmanlık tezi). Bursa: Uludağ Üniver- sitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1998.
  • Yazgan Y. Hiperaktif çocuk büyüdüğünde: Erişkinlikte Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Galenos 2006; 121:135-143.
  • Rasmussen P, Gillberg C. Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: A controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39:1424-1431.
  • Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, LaPadula M. Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, Occupational rank and Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993; 50:565-576.
  • Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. The persistence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 2002; 111:279-289.
  • Yargıç İ, Özdemiroğlu FA. Erişkinlerde Dikkat Eksikliği ve Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Işık E, Taner E, Işık U. (Editörler). Güncel Klinik Psikiyatri’de. İstanbul, Golden Print. 2008; 477-493.
  • Fayyad J, DeGraaf R, Kessler R, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, Demyttenaere K. et al. Cross-national prevalence and correlates of Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190:402-409.
  • Tamam L, Tuğlu C, Karataş C, Özcan S. Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with bipolar I disorder in remission: Preliminary study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 60:480–485.
  • Tamam L, Karakuş G, Özpoyraz N. Comorbidity of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder: prevalence and clinical correlates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008; 807:406-408.
  • Toksöz K. Alkol Bağımlılığı ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 2000.
  • Güneş VD. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocuk ve Ergenlerin Ana Babalarında Psikiyatrik Özellikler ve DEHB’nun Araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1999.
  • Taybıll B. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocukların Anne ve Babala- rında Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Belirtilerinin Taranması (Uzmanlık tezi). İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1999.
  • Tuğlu. C. Dikkat Eksikliği / Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu Olan Çocukların Babalarında Bu Tanının ve Ruhsal Durumun Gözden Geçirilmesi (Uzmanlık tezi). Edirne: Trakya Üni- versitesi Tıp Fakültesi;1996.
  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC, Bober M, Cadogen E. Gender effects on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults: Revisited. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 692–700.
  • Quinn PO. Treating adolescent girls and women with ADHD: Gender-specific issues. J Clin Psychol 2005; 61:579–587.
  • Wolf LE, Wasserstein J. Adult ADHD-concluding thoughts. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001;931:396-408.
  • Rommelse NNJ, Altink ME, DeSonneville LMJ. Are motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility dead ends in ADHD? J Abnorm Child Psychol 2007; 35: 957–967.
  • Stahl SM. Temel Psikofarmakoloji. (Çev: Taneli B, Taneli Y.). 2.baskı., Ankara, Yelkovan :Yayıncılık. 2003; 59-467.
  • Cabral P. Attention deficit disorders: Are we barking up the wrong tree? Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2006; 10:66–77.
  • Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 2008; 121:358-365.
  • Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N. Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 60: 1071-1080.
  • Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 2002; 288:1740-1748.
  • Rösler M, Retz W, Thome J. Psychopathological rating scales for diagnostic use in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256:3-11.
  • Haberstick BC, Timberlake D, Hopfer CJ, Lessem JM, Ehringer MA, Hewitt JK. Genetic and environmental contributions to retrospectively reported DSM-IV childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Med 2008; 38:1057–1066.
  • Tuğlu C. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunun genetiği. 3P Psikiyatri, Psikoloji, Psikofarmakoloji Dergisi 2004;12(2):89-94.
  • Thapar A, Langley K, Asherson P, Gill M. Gene-environment interplay in attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder and the importance of a developmental perspective. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190:1-3.
  • Todd RD, Neuman RJ. Gene environment ınteractions in the development of combined type ADHD. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007;144:971–975.
  • Pineda DA, Palacio LG, Puerta IC, Mercha’n V, Arango CP, Galvis AY. et al. Environmental influences that affect attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Study of a genetic isolate. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 16: 337–346.
  • Knopik VS, Heath AC, Jacob T, Slutske WS, Bucholz KK, Madden PAF. et al. Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD. Disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Psychol Med 2006; 36:1461–1471.
  • Tuğlu C, Ayas M, Abay E. Erişkinlerde Dikkat Eksikliği/Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu. Psiki- yatri Bülteni 1995; 3:142-144.
  • Murphy P, Schachar R. Use of self-ratings in the assessment of symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:1156– 1159.
  • Wender PH. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children, Adolescents and Adults. 1st Ed., Newyork, Oxford University Pres. 2000: 1-271.
  • Barkley RA, Biederman J. Toward a broader definition of the age-of-onset criterion for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36:1204-1210.
  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T. Diagnosing Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Are late onset and subthreshold diagnoses valid? Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:1720–1729.
  • Shur S, Gau F. Parental and family factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Taiwanese children. Aust NZ J Psychiatry, 2007; 41:688-696.
  • Minde K, Eakin L, Hechtman L. The psychosocial functioning of children and spouses of adults with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003; 44:637–646.
  • Wasserstein J. Diagnostic issues for adolescents and adults with ADHD. J Clin Psychol 2005; 61:535–547.
  • Young JL. Grown Up. A Guide to Adolescent and Adult Attention Deficit Hyperctivity Disorder. 1st Ed., Newyork, London, W. W. Norton & Company Pres. 2007: 1-303.
  • Safren SA, Perlman CA, Sprich S, Otto. MW. Mastering Your Adult ADHD. A Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Program. 1st Ed., New York, Oxford University Pres. 2005;5- 146.
  • Tuğlu C. Bipolar bozukluk ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu arasındaki ilişki. Duygudurum Bozuklukları 2001;5: 247-351.
  • Manassis K, Tannock R, Young A. Cognition in anxious children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a comparison with clinical and normal children. Behav Brain Func 2007; 3:4-14.
  • Pekcanlar A. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunda komorbidite, DSM-IV belirti sıklığı ve aile işlevleri (Uzmanlık tezi). İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1998.
  • Soykan AA. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu olan çocukların ruhsal ve organik yönden araştırılması (Uzmanlık tezi). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi; 1991.
  • Tahiroğlu YA. Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu tanısı alan çocukların sosyodemografik özellikleri, eşlik eden bozukluklar ve tedavi yaklaşımları (Uzmanlık tezi). Adana: Çukurova Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi;2003.
  • Sobanski E. Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256: 26–31.
  • Sobanski E, Brüggemann D, Alm B. Psychiatric comorbidity and functional impairment in a clinically referred sample of adults with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007; 11:712-718.
  • Sobanski E, Bruggemann D, Alm B. Subtype differences in adults with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with regard to ADHD-symptoms, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial adjustment. Eur Psychiatry 2008; 23: 142-149.
  • McGough JJ, Smalley SL, McCracken JT. Psychiatric comorbidity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Findings from multiplex families. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1621–1627.
  • Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E. Young adult outcome of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2006; 36:167–179.
  • Fischer AG, Bau CHD, Grevet EH. The role of comorbid major depressive disorder in the clinical presentation of adult ADHD. J Psychiatr Res 2007; 41:991–996.
  • Altfas JR. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adults in obezity treatment. BMC Psychiatry 2002; 2:9.
  • Fleming JP, Levy LD, Levitan RD. Symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in severely obese women. Eat Weight Disord 2005; 10:10-13.
  • Davis C, Levitan RD, Smith M. Tweed S, Curtis C. Associations among overeating, overweight, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A structural equation modelling approach. Eat Behav 2006; 7:266–274.
  • Wilson JJ. ADHD and Substance use disorders: Developmental aspects and the ımpact of stimulant treatment. Am J Addict 2007; 16:5–13.
  • Faraone SV, Wilens TE, Petty C, Antshel K, Spencer T, Biederman J. Substance use among ADHD adults: Implications of late onset and subthreshold diagnoses. Am J Addict 2007; 16:24-34.
  • Putnis AL. Substance use among young offenders: Thrills, bad feelings, or bad behavior? Subst Use Misuse 2006; 41:415–422.
  • Kalbag AS, Levin FR. Adult ADHD and substance abuse: Diagnostic and treatment ıssues. Subst Use Misuse 2005; 40:1955–1981.
  • Adler LA. Familial transmission of ADHD and psychoactive substance use disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:11-12.
  • Szobot CM. Rohde LA, Bukstein O, Molina BSG, Martins C. Is attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder associated with illicit substance use disorders in male adolescents? A community-based case–control study. Addiction 2007; 102:1122– 1130.
  • Faraone SV, Biederman J. Wilens TE, Adamson JA. Naturalistic study of the effects of pharmacotherapy on substance use disorders among ADHD adults. Psychol Med 2007; 37:1743–1752.
  • Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Does Childhood treatment of ADHD with stimulant medication affect substance abuse in adulthood? Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:553-555.
  • Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S. Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? a meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics 2003; 111;179-185.
  • McClernon FJ, Kollins SH, Lutz AM. Effects of smoking abstinence on adult smokers with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: results of a preliminary study. Psychopharmacology 2008; 197: 95–105.
  • Poltavski DV, Petros T. Effects of transdermal nicotine on attention in adult non- smokers with and without attentional deficits. Physiol Behav 2006; 87:614–624.
  • McClernon FJ, Fuemmeler BF, Kollins SH. Interactions between genotype and retrospective ADHD symptoms predict lifetime smoking risk in a sample of young adults. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10:117–127.
  • Gehricke JG, Whalen CK, Jamner LD. The reinforcing effects of nicotine and stimulant medication in the everyday lives of adult smokers with ADHD: A preliminary examination. Nicotine Tob Res 2006; 8:37–47.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance. United States. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report. [serial online]. 2007. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/YRBS/.
  • Rodriguez D, Tercyak KP, McGovern JA. Effects of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on development of nicotine dependence from mid adolescence to young adulthood. J Pediatr Psychol 2008; 33:563–575.
  • Flory K, Lynam DR. The relation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: What role does conduct disorder play? Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2003; 6:1-16.
  • Sprafkin J, Gadow KD, Weiss M. Psychiatric comorbidity in ADHD symptom subtypes in clinic and community adults. J Atten Disord 2007; 11:114-124.
  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Spencer TJ, Mick E, Monuteaux MC, Aleardi M. Functional impairments in adults with self-reports of diagnosed ADHD: A controlled study of 1001 adults in the community. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67:524-540.
  • Able SL, Johnston JA, Adler LA, Swindle RW. Functional and psychosocial impairment in adults with undiagnosed ADHD. Psychol Med 2007; 37:97–107.
There are 91 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Review
Authors

Cengiz Tuğlu This is me

Özlem Öztürk Şahin This is me

Publication Date March 1, 2010
Published in Issue Year 2010 Volume: 2 Issue: 1

Cite

AMA Tuğlu C, Şahin ÖÖ. Erişkin Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu: Nörobiyoloji, Tanı Sorunları ve Klinik Özellikler. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry. March 2010;2(1):75-116.

Creative Commons License
Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.