Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğunun Etyolojisinde Çevresel Etkenler

Hesna Gül; Bedriye Öncü

doi:10.18863/pgy.358094

Review

Environmental Factors in the Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Year 2018, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 148 - 185, 30.06.2018

Hesna Gül , Bedriye Öncü

https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.358094

Cited By: 5

Abstract

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity in which genetic, socia land physical factors are influentia land despite the resarches in this field, currently etiology is not fully understood. The aim of this review is to evaluate research on role of environmental factors in the etiology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which is attracting more and more attention all over the world.

Keywords

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, environmental exposure, etiology

References

Abuse S (2005). Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2005 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Overview of findings from the 2004 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Washington, DC, US Department of Health and Human Services.
Accornero VH, Amado AJ, Morrow CE, Xue L, Anthony JC, Band ES (2007) Impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on attention and response inhibition as assessed by continuous performance tests. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 28:195-205.
Ackerman JP, Riggins T, Black M (2010) A review of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure among school-aged children. Pediatrics, 125:554–565.
Agrawal A , Scherrer JF, Grant JD, Sartor CE, Pergadia ML, Duncan AE et al. (2010) The effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on offspring outcomes. Prev Med, 50:13-18.
Akutagava-Martins GC, Rohde LA, Hutz MH (2016) Genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an update. Expert Rev Neurother, 16:145-156.
Aldridge JE, Meyer A, Seidler FJ, Slotkin TA (2005) Alterations in central nervous system serotonergic and dopaminergic synaptic activity in adulthood after prenatal or neonatal chlorpyrifos exposure. Environ Health Perspect, 113:1027-1031.
Amso D, Scerif G (2015) The attentive brain: insights from developmental cognitive neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci, 16:606-619.
Andersen SL, Laurberg P, Wu C , Olsen J (2014) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in children born to mothers with thyroid dysfunction: a Danish nationwide cohort study. BJOG, 121:1365-1374.
APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition (DSM-5®). Washington DC, American Psychiatric Association.
Archer T, Garcia D (2016) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: focus upon aberrant N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors systems. Curr Top Behav Neurosci, 2016;29:295-311.
Arnold LE, Bozzolo H, Hollway J, Cook A, DiSilvestro RA, Bozzolo DR et al. (2005) Serum zinc correlates with parent-and teacher-rated inattention in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 15:628-636.
Bada HS, Bann CM, Bauer CR, Shankaran S, Lester B, LaGasse L et al. (2011) Preadolescent behavior problems after prenatal cocaine exposure: relationship between teacher and caretaker ratings (Maternal Lifestyle Study). Neurotoxicol Teratol, 33:78-87.
Whitaker TM, Bauer CR, Shankaran S, LaGasse L et al. (2012) Protective factors can mitigate behavior problems after prenatal cocaine and other drug exposures. Pediatrics, 130:1479-1488.
Baker GB, Bornstein R, Rouget A, Ashton S, Van Muyden J, Coutts R (1991) Phenylethylaminergic mechanisms in attention-deficit disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 29:15-22.
Ball SW, Gilman SE, Mick E, Fitzmaurice G, Ganz ML,Seidman LJ et al. (2010) Revisiting the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD. J Psychiatr Res, 44:1058-1062.
Banerjee E, Nandagopal K (2015) Does serotonin deficit mediate susceptibility to ADHD? Neurochem Int, 82:52-68.
Batstra L, Hadders-Algra M, Neeleman J (2003) Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood: prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort. Early Hum Dev,75:21-33.
Batstra LM, Hadders A, Neeleman J (2003) Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood: prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort. Early Hum Dev,75:21-33.
Becker K, El-Faddagh M, Schmidt ME, Esser G, Laucht M (2008) Interaction of dopamine transporter genotype with prenatal smoke exposure on ADHD symptoms. J Pediatr, 152:263-269.
Bergwerff CE, Luman M, Blom HJ, Oosterlaan J (2016) No Tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine abnormalities in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. PLoS One,11:e0151100.
Bhatara V, Loudenberg R, Ellis R (2006) Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure an exploratory study. J Atten Disord, 9:515-522.
Biederman J, Fitzgerald M, Spencer TJ, Bhide PG, McCarthy DM, Woodworth KY (2017) Is paternal smoking at conception a risk for ADHD? a controlled study in youth with and without ADHD. J Atten Disord, doi: 10.1177/1087054717690809.
Biederman J, Petty CR, Bhide PG, Woodworth KY, Faraone S (2012) Does exposure to maternal smoking during pregnancy affect the clinical features of ADHD? results from a controlled study. World J Biol Psychiatry, 13:60-64.
Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG (2010) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics, 125:1270-1277.
Boyd TA, Ernhart CB, Greene TH, Sokol RJ, Martier R (1991) Prenatal alcohol exposure and sustained attention in the preschool years. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 13:49-55.
Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, Lanphear BP (2006) Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in US children. Environ Health Perspect, 114:1904-1909.
Brinksma DM, Hoekstra PJ, Van den Hoofdakker B, De Bildt A, Buitelaar JK, Hartman CA et al. (2017) Age-dependent role of pre-and perinatal factors in interaction with genes on ADHD symptoms across adolescence. J Psychiatr Res, 90:110-117.
Brookes KJ, Mill J, Guindalini C, Curran S, Xu X, Knight J et al. (2006) A common haplotype of the dopamine transporter gene associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and interacting with maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63:74-81.
Brown RT, Coles CD, Smith IE, Platzman KE, Silverstein J, Erickson S et al. (1991) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. II. attention and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol 13:369-376.
Brunzell DH, McIntosh JM (2012) Alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors modulate motivation to self-administer nicotine: implications for smoking and schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37:1134-1143.
Burd L, Klug MG, Martsolf JT, Kerbeshian J (2003) Fetal alcohol syndrome: neuropsychiatric phenomics. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 25:697-705.
Burden MJ, Jacobson JL, Westerlund A, Lundahl LH, Morrison A, Dodge NC et al. (2010) An event related potential study of response inhibition in ADHD with and without prenatal alcohol exposure. Clin Exp Res, 34:617-627.
Burgess JR, Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L (2000) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr, 71:327-330.
Carmody DP, Bennett DS Lewis M (2011) The effects of prenatal cocaine exposure and gender on inhibitory control and attention. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 33:61-68.
Cecil CA, Walton E, Barker ED (2016) Prenatal diet and childhood ADHD: exploring the potential role of IGF2 methylation. Epigenomics, 8:1573-1576.
Ceylan M, Sener S, Bayraktar AC, Kavutcu M (2010) Oxidative imbalance in child and adolescent patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 34:1491-1494.
Ceylan MF, Sener S, Bayraktar AC, Kavutcu M (2012) Changes in oxidative stress and cellular immunity serum markers in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 66:220-226.
Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, D’Onofrio BM, Almqvist C, Kuja-Halkola R, Sjölander A et al.(2014) Maternal age at childbirth and risk for ADHD in offspring: a population-based cohort study. Int J Epidemiol, 43:1815-1824.
Chaste P, Leboyer M (2012) Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 14:281-292.
Chen A, Cai B, Dietrich KN, Radcliffe J, Rogan WJ (2007) Lead exposure, IQ, and behavior in urban 5-to 7-year-olds: does lead affect behavior only by lowering IQ? Pediatrics, 119:650-658.
Chen J, Chen P , Bo T, Luo K (2016) Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of ıntrauterine growth restriction school-age children. Pediatrics, 137:e20153868.
Chen Q, Sjölander A, Långström N, Rodriguez A, Serlachius E, D’Onofrio BM et al. (2013) Maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index and offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a population-based cohort study using a sibling-comparison design. Int J Epidemiol, 43:83-90.
Chiodo L. Covington MC, Sokol RJ, Hannigan JH, Jannise J, Ager J et al. (2007) Blood lead levels and specific attention effects in young children.Neurotoxicol Teratol, 29:538-546.
Chiodo LM , Da Costa DE, HanniganJE, Covington CY, Sokol RJ, Janisse J (2010) The impact of maternal age on the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on attention. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 34:1813-1821.
Chiodo LM, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL (2004) Neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal lead exposure at very low levels. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 26:359-371.
Chiu YHM, Hsu HHL, Coull BA, Bellinger DC, Kloog I, Schwartz J et al. (2016) Prenatal particulate air pollution and neurodevelopment in urban children: examining sensitive windows and sex-specific associations. Environ Int, 87:56-65.
Clements CC, Castro VM, Blumenthal SR, Rosenfield HR, Murphy SN, Fava M et al. (2015) Prenatal antidepressant exposure is associated with risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder but not autism spectrum disorder in a large health system. Mol Psychiatry, 20:727-734.
Clifford A, Lang L, Chen R, Anstey KJ, Seaton A (2016) Exposure to air pollution and cognitive functioning across the life course–a systematic literature review. Environ Res,147:383-398.
Coles CD, Platzman KA, Raskind-Hood CL, Brown RT, Falek A, Smith IE (1997) A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 21:150-161.
Comeau WL, Lee K, Anderson K, Weinberg J (2015). Prenatal alcohol exposure and adolescent stress increase sensitivity to stress and gonadal hormone influences on cognition in adult female rats. Physiol Behav, 148:157-165.
Cornelius M, Goldschmidt L, DeGenna N, Day N (2007) Smoking during teenage pregnancies: effects on behavioral problems in offspring. Nicotine Tob Res, 9:739-750.
Cornelius MD, De Genna NM, Leech SL, Willford JA, Goldschmidt L, Day NL (2011) Effects of prenatal cigarette smoke exposure on neurobehavioral outcomes in 10-year-old children of adolescent mothers. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 33:137-144.
Cornelius MD, Ryan CM, Day NL, Goldschmidt L and Willford JA (2001) Prenatal tobacco effects on neuropsychological outcomes among preadolescents. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 22:217-225.
Cortese S, Angriman M, Lecendreux M and Konofal E (2012) Iron and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: what is the empirical evidence so far? a systematic review of the literature. Expert Rev Neurother, 12:1227-1240.
Cortese S,Azoulay R, Castellanos FX, Chalard F, Lecendreux M, Chechin D et al. (2012) Brain iron levels in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot MRI study. World J Biol Psychiatry, 13:223-231.
Curran EA, O'Neill SM, Cryan JF, Kenny LC, Dinan TG, Khashan AS et al. (2015) Birth by caesarean section and development of autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 56:500-508.
D Levin (2012) α7-Nicotinic receptors and cognition. Curr Drug Targets, 13:602-606.
D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB (2007) Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 64:1296-1304.
Daley D, Jones K, Hutchings J, Thompson M (2009) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children: current findings, recommended interventions and future directions. Child Care Health Dev, 35:754-766.
Davies W (2014) Sex differences in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: candidate genetic and endocrine mechanisms. Front Neuroendocrinol, 35:331-346.
Day NL, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Cornelius MD (2000) Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers' behavior. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 21:180-188.
Deault LC (2010) A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 41:168-192.
Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Templin T, Ager J, Nordstrom-Klee B, Martier S et al. (2000) Teacher-assessed behavior of children prenatally exposed to cocaine. Pediatrics, 106:782-791.
Denson R, Nanson J, McWatters M (1975) Hyperkinesis and maternal smoking. Can J Psychiatry, 20:183-187.
Dolan GP, Stone DH, Briggs AH (2009) A systematic review of continuous performance task research in children prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol, 45:30-38.
Eiden RD, Coles CD, Schuetze P, Colder CR (2014) Externalizing behavior problems among polydrug cocaine-exposed children: indirect pathways via maternal harshness and self-regulation in early childhood. Psychol Addict Behav, 28:139-153.
Ellis LC, Berg-Nielsen TS, Lydersen S,Wichstrøm L (2012) Smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric disorders in preschoolers. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 21:635-644.
Ende G, CackowskiS, Van EijkJ, Sack M, DemirakcaT, Kleindienst N et al.(2016). Impulsivity and aggression in female BPD and ADHD patients: association with ACC glutamate and GABA concentrations. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41:410-418.
Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K, Bart DB, Johnson C et al. (2007) Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environ Health Perspect, 15:792-798.
Fagnano M, Conn KM, Halterman JS (2008) Environmental tobacco smoke and behaviors of inner-city children with asthma. Ambul Pediatr, 8:288-293.
Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T (1992) Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: preliminary findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,31:863-867.
Faraone SV, Bonvicini C, Scassellati C (2014) Biomarkers in the diagnosis of ADHD--promising directions. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 16:497.
Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT (1993) Maternal smoking before and after pregnancy: effects on behavioral outcomes in middle childhood. Pediatrics, 92:815-822.
Flory K, Molina BS, Pelham Jr WE, Gnagy E, Smith E (2007) ADHD and risky sexual behavior. ADHD Rep, 15(3):1-4.
Fluegge K (2016) Does environmental exposure to the greenhouse gas, N2O, contribute to etiological factors in neurodevelopmental disorders? a mini-review of the evidence. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol., 47:6-18.
Fluegge K (2016) Does MeCP2 deficiency in autism confer protection against later development of Alzheimer’s disease? a reply to Oberman and Pascual-Leone. Med Hypotheses, 92:18-20.
Fluegge K (2016) The possible role of air pollution in the link between ADHD and obesity. Postgrad Med, 128:573-576.
Fluegge K, Fluegge K (2016) Glyphosate use predicts healthcare utilization for ADHD in the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project net (HCUPnet): a two-way fixed-effects analysis. Pol J Environ Stud, 25:1489-1503.
Fried PA, Watkinson B, Gray R (1992) A follow-up study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marihuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 14:299-311.
Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Auinger P, Hornung R, Epstein JN, Braun J et al. (2009) Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 124: e1054-e1063.
Frye RE, Rossignol D, Casanova MF, Martin V, Brown G, Edelson SM (2013) A review of traditional and novel treatments for seizures in autism spectrum disorder: findings from a systematic review and expert panel. Front Public Health, 1: 31.
Furtado EF, De Sá Roriz ST (2016) Inattention and impulsivity associated with prenatal alcohol exposure in a prospective cohort study with 11-years-old Brazilian children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 25:1327-1335.
Gallo EF, Posner J (2016) Moving towards causality in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: overview of neural and genetic mechanisms. Lancet Psychiatry, 3:555-567.
Gao Y, Heldt SA (2015) Lack of neuronal nitric oxide synthase results in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like behaviors in mice. Behav Neurosci,129:50-61.
Geissler J, Lesch KP (2011) A lifetime of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic challenges, treatment and neurobiological mechanisms. Expert Rev Neurother, 11:1467-1484.
Getahun D, Rhoads GG, Demissie K, Lu SE, Quinn VP, Fassett MJ (2013) In utero exposure to ischemic-hypoxic conditions and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 131:e53-e61.
Glass L, Graham DM, Deweese BN, Jones KL, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2014) Correspondence of parent report and laboratory measures of inattention and hyperactivity in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 42:43-50.
Guillette EA, Meza MM, Aquilar MG, Soto AD, Garcia IE (1998) An anthropological approach to the evaluation of preschool children exposed to pesticides in Mexico. Environ Health Perspect, 106:347-353.
Gul H, Gurkan CK (2016) Child maltreatment and associated parental factors among children with ADHD: a comparative study. J Atten Disord, doi: 10.1177/1087054716658123.
Gustavson K, Ystrom E, Stoltenberg C, Susser E, Surén P, Magnus P et al.(2017) Smoking in pregnancy and child ADHD. Pediatrics, 139:e20162509.
Ha M, Kwon HJ, Lim MH, Jee YK, Hong YC, Leem JH et al. (2009) Low blood levels of lead and mercury and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity in children: a report of the children's health and environment research (CHEER). Neurotoxicology, 30:31-36.
Halmøy A, Klungsøyr K, Skjærven R, Haavik J (2012) Pre-and perinatal risk factors in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 71:474-481.
Hamer M, Ford T, Stamatakis E, Dockray S, Batty GD (2011) Objectively measured secondhand smoke exposure and mental health in children: evidence from the Scottish Health Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 165:326-331.
Han JY, Kwon HJ, Ha M, Paik KC, Lim MH, Lee SG et al. (2015) The effects of prenatal exposure to alcohol and environmental tobacco smoke on risk for ADHD: a large population-based study. Psychiatry Res, 225:164-168.
Hansen TG (2015) Anesthesia related neurotoxicity and the developing animal brain is not a significant problem in children. Pediatr Anestesia, 25:65-72.
Hara Y, Waters EM, McEwen BS, Morrison JH (2015) Estrogen effects on cognitive and synaptic health over the lifecourse. Physiol Rev, 95:785-807.
Hariri M, Azadbakht L (2015) Magnesium, iron, and zinc supplementation for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review on the recent literature. Int J Prev Med, 6:83.
Harpin VA (2005) The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Arch Dis Child, 90 (Suppl1):i2-i7.
Harris MN, Voigt RG, Barbaresi WJ, Voge GA, Killian JM, Weaver AL, Colby CE et al.(2013) ADHD and learning disabilities in former late preterm infants: a population-based birth cohort. Pediatrics, 132:e630-e636.
Heath CJ, Picciotto MR (2009) Nicotine-induced plasticity during development: modulation of the cholinergic system and long-term consequences for circuits involved in attention and sensory processing. Neuropharmacology, 56:254-262.
Henriksen L, Wu CS, Secher NJ, Obel C, Juhl M (2015) Medical augmentation of labor and the risk of ADHD in offspring: a population-based study. Pediatrics, 135:672-677.
Herranz G, Vílchez M, Ledo J, Sierra A (2014) Children born to heroin-addicted mothers: what’s the outcome 25 years later. J Addict Res Ther, 5:180.
Heyer DB, Meredith RM (2017) Environmental toxicology: sensitive periods of development and neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurotoxicology, 58:23-41.
Hinshaw SP (2002) Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. J Consult Clin Psychol, 70:1086.
Huang S, Hu H, Sánchez BN, Peterson KE, Ettinger AS, Lamadrid-Figueroa H et al.(2016) Childhood blood lead levels and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a cross-sectional study of Mexican children. Environ Health Perspect, 124:868-874.
Indredavik MS, Vik T, Evensen KAI, Skranes J, Taraldsen G, Brubakk AM (2010) Perinatal risk and psychiatric outcome in adolescents born preterm with very low birth weight or term small for gestational age. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 31:286-294.
Jacobson SW, Carr LG, Croxford J, Sokol RJ, Li TK, Jacobson JL (2006) Protective effects of the alcohol dehydrogenase-ADH1B allele in children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy. J Pediatr, 148:30-37.
Joelsson P, Chudal R, Talati A, Suominen A, Brown AS, Sourander A (2016) Prenatal smoking exposure and neuropsychiatric comorbidity of ADHD: a finnish nationwide population-based cohort study. BMC Psychiatry, 16:306.
Johnston C,Mash EJ (2001) Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review and recommendations for future research. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev, 4:183-207.
Johnston C,Mash EJ, Miller N, Ninowski JE (2012) Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clin Physiol Rev, 32:215-228.
Joseph N, Zhang-James Y, Perl A Faraone SV (2015) Oxidative stress and ADHD: a meta-analysis. J Atten Disord, 19:915-924.
Kahn RS, Khoury J, Nichols WC and Lanphear BP (2003) Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. J Pediatr, 143:104-110.
Kalkbrenner AE, Windham GC, Serre ML, Akita Y, Wang X, Hoffman K et al. (2015) Particulate matter exposure, prenatal and postnatal windows of susceptibility, and autism spectrum disorders. Epidemiology, 26:30-42.
Keown LJ (2012) Predictors of boys’ ADHD symptoms from early to middle childhood: the role of father–child and mother–child interactions. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 40:569-581.
Kesmodel US, Bertrand J,Støvring H, Skarpness B, Denny CH, Mortensen EL (2012) The effect of different alcohol drinking patterns in early to mid pregnancy on the child’s intelligence, attention, and executive function. BJOG, 119:1180-1190.
Knopik VS, Heath AC, Jacob T, Slutske WS, Bucholz KK, Madden PA et al.(2006) Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD: disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Physiol Med, 36:1461-1472.
Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, Mouren MC (2004) Iron deficiency in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 158:1113-1115.
Kovess V, Keyes KM, Hamilton A, Pez O, Bitfoi A, Koç C et al. (2015) Maternal smoking and offspring inattention and hyperactivity: results from a cross-national European survey. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 24:919-929.
Leech S, Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Day N (1999) Prenatal substance exposure: effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 21:109-118.
Liew Z, Ritz B, Rebordosa C, Lee PC, Olsen J (2014) Acetaminophen use during pregnancy, behavioral problems, and hyperkinetic disorders. JAMA Pediatr, 168:313-320.
Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A (2008) Parent–child relationships and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal analysis. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 36:285-296.
Linares TA, Singer LT, Kirchner HL, Short EJ, Min MO, Hussey P et al.(2006) Mental health outcomes of cocaine-exposed children at 6 years of age. J Pediatr Psychol, 31:85-97.
Lindblad F, Hjern A (2010) ADHD after fetal exposure to maternal smoking. Nicotine Tob Res, 12:408-415.
Linnet KM, Dalsgaard S, Obel C, Wisborg K , Henriksen TB, Rodriguez A et al. (2003) Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: review of the current evidence. Am J Psychiatry, 160:1028-1040.
Louth EL, Bignell W, Taylor CL, Bailey CD (2016) Developmental ethanol exposure leads to long-term deficits in attention and its underlying prefrontal circuitry. Eneuro, 3(5):pii: ENEURO.0267-16.2016.
Makin J, Fried PA, Watkinson BA (1991) A comparison of active and passive smoking during pregnancy: long-term effects. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 13:5-12.
Marks AR, Harley K, Bradman A, Kogut K, Barr DB, Johnson C et al. (2010) Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect, 118:1768-1774.
Martinez L, Prada E, Satler C, Tavares MC, Tomaz C (2016) Executive dysfunctions: the role in attention deficit hyperactivity and post-traumatic stress neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Psychol, 7:1230.
Mattson SN, Riley EP (2000) Parent ratings of behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and IQ matched controls. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 24:226-231.
Maughan B, Taylor C, Taylor A, Butler N, Bynner J (2001) Pregnancy smoking and childhood conduct problems: a causal association? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 42:1021-1028.
Max W, Sung HY, Shi Y (2013) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children exposed to secondhand smoke: a logistic regression analysis of secondary data. Int J Nurs Stud, 50:797-806.
McCann D, Barrett A, Cooper A, Crumpler D, Dalen L, Grimshaw K et al. (2007) Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 370:1560-1567.
McFadden KL, Cornier MA, Tregellas JR (2014) The role of alpha-7 nicotinic receptors in food intake behaviors. Front Psychol, 5:553.
McGregor IS, Bowen MT (2012) Breaking the loop: oxytocin as a potential treatment for drug addiction. Hormon Behav, 61:331-339.
Mick E, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Sayer J, Kleinman S (2002) Case-control study of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use during pregnancy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 41:378-385.
Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Chen L, Jones J (1996) Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children? Am J Psychiatry, 153:1138-1142.
Min MO, Minnes S, Lang A, Weishampel P, Short EJ, Yoon S et al. (2014) Externalizing behavior and substance use related problems at 15 years in prenatally cocaine exposed adolescents. J Adolesc, 37:269-279.
Minnes S, Singer LT, Kirchner HL, Short E, Lewis B, Satayathum S et al. (2010) The effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on problem behavior in children 4–10 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 32:443-451.
Monk BR, Leslie FM, Thomas JD (2012). The effects of perinatal choline supplementation on hippocampal cholinergic development in rats exposed to alcohol during the brain growth spurt. Hippocampus, 22:1750-1757.
Needleman HL, Gunnoe C, Leviton A, Reed R, Peresie H, Maher C et al. (1979) Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. N Engl J Med, 300:689-695.
Neuman RJ, Lobos E, Reich W, Henderson CA, Sun LW, Todd LD (2007). Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biol Psychiatry, 61:1320-1328.
Nigg JT, Knottnerus GM, Martel MM, Nikolas M, Cavanagh K, Karmaus W et al. (2008) Low blood lead levels associated with clinically diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol Psychiatry, 63:325-331.
Nigg JT, Nikolas M, Mark Knottnerus G, Cavanagh K, Friderici K (2010) Confirmation and extension of association of blood lead with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD symptom domains at population typical exposure levels. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 51:58-65.
Noland JS, Singer LT, Short EJ, Minnes S, Arendt RE, Kirchner HL et al.(2005) Prenatal drug exposure and selective attention in preschoolers. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 27:429-438.
Noreika V, Falter CM, Rubia K (2013) Timing deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): evidence from neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Neuropsychologia, 51:235-266.
Nulman I, Rovet J, Greenbaum R and Loebstein M (2001) Neurodevelopment of adopted children exposed in utero to cocaine: the Toronto Adoption Study. Clin Invest Med, 24:129.
Oades RD, Dauvermann MR, Schimmelmann BG, Schwarz MJ, Myint AM (2010) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and glial integrity: S100B, cytokines and kynurenine metabolism-effects of medication. Behav Brain Funct, 6:29.
Obel C, Linnet KM, Henriksen TB, Rodriguez A, Järvelin MR, Kotimaa A et al.(2009) Smoking during pregnancy and hyperactivity-inattention in the offspring—comparing results from three Nordic cohorts. Int J Epidemiol, 38:698-705.
Obel C, Olsen J, Henriksen TB, Rodriguez A, Järvelin MR, Moilanen I et al. (2010) Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for hyperkinetic disorder? findings from a sibling design. Int J Epidemiol, 40:338-345.
Obel C, Zhu JL, Olsen J, Breining S, Li J, Grønborg TK et al. (2015) The risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children exposed to maternal smoking during pregnancy–a reexamination using a sibling design. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 57:532-537.
O'connor TG, Rutter M, R. A. S. Team (2000) Attachment disorder behavior following early severe deprivation: extension and longitudinal follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 39:703-712.
Ornoy A (2003) The impact of intrauterine exposure versus postnatal environment in neurodevelopmental toxicity: long-term neurobehavioral studies in children at risk for developmental disorders. Toxicol Lett, 140:171-181.
Ornoy A, Michailevskaya V, Lukashov I, Bar-Hamburger R, Harel S (1996) The developmental outcome of children born to heroin-dependent mothers, raised at home or adopted. Child Abuse Negl, 20:385-396.
Ornoy A, Daka L, Goldzweig G, Gil Y, Mjen L, Levit S et al. (2010) Neurodevelopmental and psychological assessment of adolescents born to drug-addicted parents: effects of SES and adoption. Child Abuse Negl, 34:354-368.
Ornoy A, Segal J, Bar Hamburger R and Greenbaum C (2001) Developmental outcome of school age children born to mothers with heroin dependency: Importance of environmental factors. Dev Med Child Neurol, 43:668-675.
Palmer RH, Bidwell LC, Heath AC, Brick LA, Madden PA, Knopik VA(2016) Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on offspring externalizing problems: contextual effects in a sample of female twins. Behav Genet,46:403-415.
Park S, Cho SC, Kim JW, Shin MS, Yoo HJ, Oh SM et al. (2014) Differential perinatal risk factors in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder by subtype. Psychiatry Res, 219:609-616.
Patrick SW, Schumacher RE, Benneyworth BD, Krans EE, McAllister JM, Davis MM (2012) Neonatal abstinence syndrome and associated health care expenditures: United States, 2000-2009. JAMA, 307:1934-1940.
Pei-Chen Chang J, Lane HY, Tsai GE (2014) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) dysregulation. Curr Pharm Des, 20:5180-5185.
Pheula GF , Rohde LA and Schmitz M (2011) Are family variables associated with ADHD, inattentive type? A case–control study in schools. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 20:137-145.
Pirkle JL, Bernert JT, Caudill SP, Sosnoff CS, Pechacek TF (2006) Trends in the exposure of nonsmokers in the US population to secondhand smoke: 1988-2002. Environ Health Perspect,114:853-858.
Pohlabeln H, Rach S, De Henauw S, Eiben G, Gwozdz W, Hadjigeorgiou C et al. (2017) Further evidence for the role of pregnancy-induced hypertension and other early life influences in the development of ADHD: results from the IDEFICS study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, doi: 10.1007/s00787-017-0966-2.
Polanczyk G, De Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA (2007) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry, 164:942-948.
Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB et al. (2006) Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics, 118:e1845-e1859.
Richardson GA, Conroy ML, Day NL (1996) Prenatal cocaine exposure: effects on the development of school-age children. Neurotoxicol Teratol,18:627-634.
Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Larkby C, Day NL (2013) Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on child behavior and growth at 10years of age. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 40:1-8.
Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Leech S, Willford J (2011) Prenatal cocaine exposure: Effects on mother-and teacher-rated behavior problems and growth in school-age children. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 33:69-77.
Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Willford J (2009) Continued effects of prenatal cocaine use: preschool development. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 31:325-333.
Richardson GA, Ryan C, Willford J, Day NL, Goldschmidt L (2002) Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 24:309-320.
Richardson MA, Grant-Knight W, Beeghly M, Rose-Jacobs R, Chen CA, Appugliese DP et al.(2016) Psychological distress among school-aged children with and without intrauterine cocaine exposure: perinatal versus contextual effect. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 44:547-560.
Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil CA, Walton E, Mesirow MS, Relton CL, Gaunt TR et al. (2017) Prenatal unhealthy diet, insulin like growth factor 2 gene (IGF2) methylation, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in youth with earlyonset conduct problems. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 58:19-27.
Rodriguez A, Olsen J, Kotimaa A, Kaakinen M, Moilanen I, Henriksen TB et al. (2009) Is prenatal alcohol exposure related to inattention and hyperactivity symptoms in children? Disentangling the effects of social adversity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 50:1073-1083.
Rogers EE, Hintz SR (2016) Early neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely preterm infants. Semin Perinatol, 40:497-509.
Ross SJM, Brewin CR, Curran HV, Furlong CE, Abraham-Smith KM, Harrison V (2010) Neuropsychological and psychiatric functioning in sheep farmers exposed to low levels of organophosphate pesticides. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 32:452-459.
Roy A, Bellinger D, Hu H, Schwartz J, Ettinger AS, Wright RO et al. (2009) Lead exposure and behavior among young children in Chennai, India. Environ Health Perspect, 117:1607-1611.
Russell AE, Ford T, Williams R and Russell G (2016) The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 47:440-458.
Rusyniak DE, Nañagas NA (2004) Organophosphate poisoning. Semin Neurol, 24:197-204.
Rutter M, Beckett C, Castle J, Colvert E, Kreppner J, Mehta M et al. (2007) Effects of profound early institutional deprivation: An overview of findings from a UK longitudinal study of Romanian adoptees. Eur J Dev Psychol, 4:332-350.
Rutter M, Kreppner J, Croft C, Murin M, Colvert E, Beckett C et al. (2007) Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally deprived and non‐deprived adoptees. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 48:1200-1207.
Sasaki T, Hashimoto K, Oda Y, Ishima T, Kurata T, Takahashi J et al. (2015) Decreased levels of serum oxytocin in pediatric patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res, 228:746-751.
Sciberras E, Mulraney M, Silva D, Coghill D (2017) Prenatal risk factors and the etiology of ADHD-review of existing evidence. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 19:1.
Seipp CM, Johnston C (2005) Mother–son interactions in families of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 33:87-98.
Sharma A, Couture J (2014) A review of the pathophysiology, etiology, and treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ann Pharmacother, 48:209-225.
Silva D, Colvin L, Hagemann E, Bower C (2014) Environmental risk factors by gender associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 133:e14-e22.
Simon V, Czobor P, Bálint S, Mészáros A, Bitter I (2009) Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis.Br J Psychiatry, 194:204-211.
Skoglund C, Chen Q, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H (2014) Familial confounding of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in offspring. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 55:61-68.
Slinning K (2004) Foster placed children prenatally exposed to poly-substances. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 13:19-27.
Sonuga-Barke EJ, Auerbach J, Campbell SB, Daley D, Thompson M (2005) Varieties of preschool hyperactivity: multiple pathways from risk to disorder. Dev Sci, 8:141-150.
Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M et al. (2013) Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. Am J Psychiatry, 170:275-289.
Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Nordstrom-Klee B, Ager J, Templin T et al. (2001) Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. dose-response effect. Pediatrics, 108:e34.
Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Mick E (2007) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. J Pediatr Psychol, 32:631-642.
Sprung J, Flick RP, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Barbaresi WJ, Bojanić K et al. (2012) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder after early exposure to procedures requiring general anesthesia. Mayo Clin Proc, 87:120-129.
Streissguth AP, Barr HM, Sampson PD, Parrish-Johnson JC (1986) Attention, distraction and reaction time at age 7 years and prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 8:717-725.
Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Sampson PD, Barr HM (1989) Neurobehavioral effects of prenatal alcohol: Part III. PLS analyses of neuropsychologic tests. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 11:493-507.
Streissguth AP, Herman CS, Smith DW (1978) Intelligence, behavior, and dysmorphogenesis in the fetal alcohol syndrome: a report on 20 patients. J Pediatr, 92:363-367.
Streissguth AP, Sampson PD, Barr HM (1989) Neurobehavioral dose‐response effects of prenatal alcohol exposure in humans from infancy to adulthood. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 562:145-158.
Tarver J, Daley D, Sayal K (2014) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an updated review of the essential facts. Child Care Health Dev, 40:762-774.
Thapar A, Cooper M (2016) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 387:1240-1250.
Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K (2013) Practitioner review: what have we learnt about the causes of ADHD? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 54:3-16.
Thapar A, Fowler T, Rice F, Scourfield J, Van den Bree M, Thomas H et al.(2003) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in offspring. Am J Psychiatry, 160:1985-1989.
Thapar A, Rice F, Hay D, Boivin J, Langley K, Van den Bree M, Rutter M et al.(2009) Prenatal smoking might not cause attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from a novel design.Biol Psychiatry, 66:722-727.
Thompson JM, Waldie KE, Wall CR, Murphy R, Mitchell EA, Group AS (2014) Associations between acetaminophen use during pregnancy and ADHD symptoms measured at ages 7 and 11 years. PLoS One, 9:e108210.
Todd RD, Neuman RJ (2007) Gene–Environment interactions in the development of combined type ADHD: evidence for a synapse based model. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 144:971-975.
Tournebize J, Gibaja V, Kahn JP (2017) Acute effects of synthetic cannabinoids: update 2015. Subst Abus, 38:344-366.
Verlaet AA, Noriega DB, Hermans N, Savelkoul HF (2014) Nutrition, immunological mechanisms and dietary immunomodulation in ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 23:519-529.
Vrijheid M, Casas M, Gascon M, Valvi D, Nieuwenhuijsen M (2016) Environmental pollutants and child health: a review of recent concerns. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 219:331-342.
Wakschlag LS, Pickett KE, Kasza KE, Loeber R (2006) Is prenatal smoking associated with a developmental pattern of conduct problems in young boys? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 45:461-467.
Wang HL, Chen XT, Yang B, Ma FL, Wang S, Tang ML et al. (2008) Case-control study of blood lead levels and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Chinese children. Environ Health Perspect, 116:1401-1406.
Wang X, Xu Z, Miao CH (2014) Current clinical evidence on the effect of general anesthesia on neurodevelopment in children: an updated systematic review with meta-regression. PloS One, 9:e85760.
Ware AL, Crocker N, O'Brien JW, Deweese BN, Roesch SC, Coles CD et al. (2012) Executive function predicts adaptive behavior in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 36:1431-1441.
Ware AL,Glass L, Crocker N, Deweese BN, Coles CD, Kable JA et al. (2014) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder on adaptive functioning. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 38:1439-1447.
Weitzman M, Gortmaker S, Sobol A (1992) Maternal smoking and behavior problems of children.Pediatrics, 90:342-349.
Whitaker TM, Bada HS, Bann CM, Shankaran S, LaGasse L, Lester BM et al. (2011) Serial pediatric symptom checklist screening in children with prenatal drug exposure. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 32:206-215.
Willcutt EG (2012) The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics, 9:490-499.
Williams GM, O'Callaghan M, Najman JM, Bor W, Andersen MJ, Richards D et al. (1998) Maternal cigarette smoking and child psychiatric morbidity: a longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 102:e11.
Wilson GS, McCreary R, Kean J, Baxter JC (1979) The development of preschool children of heroin-addicted mothers: a controlled study. Pediatrics, 63:135-141.
Yolton K, Cornelius M, Ornoy A, McGough J, Makris S, Schantz S (2014) Exposure to neurotoxicants and the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its related behaviors in childhood. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 44:30-45.
Yu CJ, Du JC, Chiou HC, Chung MY, Yang W, Chen YS et al. (2016) Increased risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder associated with exposure to organophosphate pesticide in Taiwanese children. Andrology, 4:695-705.
Zhang H, Du L, Du Z, Jiang H, Han D, Li Q (2015) Association between childhood exposure to single general anesthesia and neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort study. J Anesth, 29:749-757.
Zhu JL, Olsen J, Liew Z, Li J, Niclasen J, Obel C (2014) Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort. Pediatrics, 134:e382-e388.
Ziegler S, Pedersen ML, Mowinckel AM, Biele G (2016) Modelling ADHD: A review of ADHD theories through their predictions for computational models of decision-making and reinforcement learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 71:633-656.