Güncel Bir Paradigma: Yazılı Duygusal Dışavurum

Year 2019, Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 65 - 79, 31.03.2019

Didem Acar , Gülay Dirik

https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.364852

Cited By: 3

Abstract

Stres verici ya da travmatik olaylarla ilgili duygu ve düşünceleri ifade etmenin sağlık için yararlı olduğu uzun yıllardan beri düşünülmektedir. Bu bağlamda, Pennebaker duygu ve düşüncelerin sadece sözlü değil yazılı dışavurumunun da önemine işaret ederek “yazılı duygusal dışavurum paradigmasını” geliştirmiş ve yazılı duygusal dışavurumun fiziksel ve psikolojik sağlığı geliştirdiğini vurgulamıştır. Araştırmalar, hem sağlıklı hem de sağlık sorunları olan bireylerin travmatik ya da stres verici deneyimle-rinden yaklaşık 2 ay sonra, birbirini takip eden 3-4 günde ve en az 15 dakika yazdıklarında birçok sağlık sonucunda olumlu değişim yaşadıklarına işaret etmektedir. Ayrıca bu paradigmadan kimlerin fayda sağlayabileceğini inceleyen araştırmaların önemli bulgular sunduğu da göze çarpmaktadır. Bu derleme makalesinin amacı, yazılı duygusal dışavurum paradigmasının yapısını, ortaya çıkardığı değişim ve faydaları, bu değişimlerin temelindeki etki mekanizmalarını, prosedürünü ve bireysel farklılıklar ile ilişkisini alan yazındaki araştırmalar eşliğinde gözden geçirmek ve ele alınan çalışmaların uygulama açısından doğurgularını tartışmaktır.

Keywords

Yazılı duygusal dışavurum, travma, stres, psikolojik sağlık, fiziksel sağlık

A Current Paradigm: Written Emotional Disclosure

Abstract

It has been supposed for years that expressing feelings and thoughts about stressful or traumatic events is helpful for health. In this regard, Pennebaker developed “Written Emotional Disclosure Paradigm” that refers to the importance of not only verbal but also written disclosure of feelings and thoughts. He suggested that written emotional disclosure improves physical and psychological health. The studies pointed out that individuals who are healthy or have health problems experience positive changes in various health outcomes when they wrote for 3-4 consecutive days, for at least 15 minutes and after about 2 months from traumatic or stressful experiences. Also, important findings from studies that examine who can benefit from this paradigm attracted attention. The aim of this article is to review the structure of written emotional disclosure paradigm, its effects and benefits, mechanisms of action underlying these effects, its procedure and relationship with individual differences on the basis of the studies in the literature and to discuss the implications of these studies in terms of practice.

Keywords

Written emotional disclosure, trauma, stress, psychological health, physical health

References

• Ashley L, O’connor D, Jones F (2011) Effects of emotional disclosure in caregivers: Moderating role of alexithymia. Stress Health, 27:376–387.
• Austenfeld J, Paolo AM, Stanton AL (2006) Effects of writing about emotions versus goals on psychological and physical health among third-year medical students. J Pers, 74:267-286.
• Averill AJ, Kasarskis EJ, Segerstrom SC (2013) Expressive disclosure to improve well-being in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A Randomised, controlled trial. Psychol Health,28:701-713.
• Baikie K, Wilhelm K (2005) Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing. Adv Psychiatr Treat, 11:338-346.
• Baikie KA (2008) Who does expressive writing work for? Examination of alexithymia, splitting, and repressive coping style as moderators of the expressive writing paradigm. Br J Health Psychol,13:61-66.
• Baikie KA, Geerlings L, Wilhelm K (2012) Expressive writing and positive writing for participants with mood disorders: An online randomized controlled trial. J Affect Disord, 136:310-319.
• Bornstein R (2010) Gender schemas, gender roles, and expressive writing: Toward a process-focused model. Sex Roles, 63:173-177.
• Brewin C, Lennard H (1999) Effects of mode of writing on emotional narratives. J Trauma Stress,2:355-361.
• Broderick JE, Junghaenel DU, Schwartz, JE (2005) Written emotional expression produces health benefits in fibromyalgia patients. Psychosom Med, 67:326-334.
• Brown E, Heimberg R (2001) Effects of writing about rape: Evaluating Pennebaker’s paradigm with a severe trauma. J Trauma Stress, 14: 781-790.
• Burton CM, King L (2008) Effects of (very) brief writing on health: The two-minute miracle. Br J Health Psychol, 13:9-14.
• Burton CM, King L (2009) The health benefits of writing about positive experiences: The role of broadened cognition. Psychol Health, 24:867–879.
• Burton CM, King L (2009) The Health Benefits of Writing about Positive Experiences: The Role of Broadened Cognition. Psychol Health, 24:867–879.
• Cantekin D (2008) Yazılı dışavurum paradigmasının yinelenmesi ve genişletilmesi: boylamasına araştırma (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Ankara, Ortadoğu Teknik Üniversitesi.
• Chung CK, Pennebaker JW (2008) Variations in the spacing of expressive writing sessions. Br J Health Psychol, 13:15-21.
• Craft MA, Davis GC, Paulson RM (2012) Expressive writing in early breast cancer survivors. J Adv Nurs, 69:305-315.
• Creech SK, Smith J, Grimes JS, Meagher MW (2011) Written emotional disclosure of trauma and trauma history alter pain sensitivity. J Pain, 12:801-810.
• Esterling BA, Antoni MH, Fletcher MA, Margulies S, Schneiderman N (1994) Emotional disclosure through writing or speaking modulates latent epstein barr virüs antibody titers.J Consult Clin Psychol, 62:130-140.
• Foa EB, Kozak MJ (1986) Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychol Bull, 99:20-35.
• Frattaroli J (2006) Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull, 132:823-865.
• Frattaroli J, Thomas M, Lyumomirsky S (2011) Opening up in the classroom: Effects of expressive writing on graduate school entrance exam performance. Emotion, 11:691-696.
• Gidron Y, Peri T, Connolly JF, Shalev AY (1996) Written disclosure in posttraumatic stress disorder: Is it beneficial for the patient?. J Nerv Ment Dis,184:505-507.
• Gortner EM, Rude SS, Pennebaker JW (2006) Benefits of expressive writing in lowering rumination and depressive symptoms. Behav Ther, 37:292-303.
• Graf MC, Gaudiano BA, Geller PA (2008) Written emotional disclosure: A controlled study of the benefits of expressive writing homework in outpatient psychotherapy. Psychother Res, 18:389-399.
• Greenberg MA, Stone AA (1992) Emotional disclosure about traumas and its relation to health: Effects of previous disclosure and trauma severity. J Pers Soc Psychol, 63:75-84.
• Guastella A, Dadds MR (2006) Cognitive-behavioral models of emotional writing: A validation study. Cogn Ther Res, 30:397-414.
• Hirai M, Skidmore ST, Clum GA, Dolma S (2012) An investigation of the efficacy of online expressive writing for trauma-related psychological distress in Hispanic individuals. Behav Ther, 43:812-824.
• Hoyt T, Yeater EA (2011) The effects of negative emotion and expressive writing on posttraumatic stress symptoms. J Soc Clin Psychol, 30:549-569.
• Ireland M, Malouff JM, Byrne B (2007) The efficacy of written emotional expression in the reduction of psychological distress in police officers. Int J Police Sci Manag, 9:303-311.
• Jensen-Johansen MB, Christensen S, Valdimarsdottir H, Zakowski S, Jensen AB, Bovbjerg DH (2013) Effects of an expressive writing intervention on cancer-related distress in Danish breast cancer survivors - Results from a nationwide randomized clinical trial. Psychooncology, 22:1492-1500.
• Kearns MC, Edwards K, Calhoun KS, Gidycz C (2010) Disclosure of sexual victimization: The effects of Pennebaker’s emotional disclosure paradigm on physical and psychological distress.J Trauma Dissociation, 11:193-209.
• Keefe FJ, Anderson T, Lumley M, Caldwell D, Stainbrook D, Mckee D et al. (2008) A randomized, controlled trial of emotional disclosure in rheumatoid arthritis: Can clinician assistance enhance the effects? Pain, 137:164-172.
• Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Pennebaker JW, Glaser R (1988) Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol, 56:239-245.
• King DJ, Holden JM (1998) Disclosure of trauma and psychosomatic health: An interview with James W. Pennebaker. J Couns Dev, 76:358-363.
• King L (2001) The health benefits of writing about life goals. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 27:798-805.
• King LA, Miner KN (2000) Writing about the perceived benefits of traumatic events: Implications for physical health. Pers Soc Psychol, 26:220-230.
• Klein K, Boals A (2001) Expressive writing can increase working memory capacity. J Exp Psychol, 130:520-533.
• Kloss JD, Lisman SA (2002) An exposure-based examination of the effects of written emotional disclosure. Br J Health Psychol, 7:31-46.
• Kovac S, Range (2000) Writing projects: Lessening undergraduates. Suicide Life Threat Behav, 30:50-60.
• Krpan KM, Kross E, Berman MG, Deldin PJ, Askren MK, Jonides J (2013) An everyday activity as a treatment for depression: The benefits of expressive writing for people diagnosed with majör depressive disorder. J Affect Disord, 150:1148-1151.
• Landry DF, Rachal CK, Rachal WS, Rosenthal GT (2005) Expressive disclosure following an interpersonal conflict: Can merely writing about an interpersonal offense motivate forgiveness?.Counseling and Clinical Psychology Journal, 2:2-14.
• Lepore SJ (1997) Expressive writing moderates the relation between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. J Pers Soc Psychol, 73:1030-1037.
• Lepore SJ, Greenberg MA (2002) Mending broken hearts: Effects of expressive writing on mood, cognitive processing, social adjustment and health following a relationship break up. Psychol Health, 17:547-560.
• Low CA, Stanton AL, Danoff-Burg S (2006) Expressive disclosure and benefit finding among breast cancer patients: Mechanisms for positive health effects. Health Psychol, 25:181–189.
• Lu Q, Stanton A (2010) How benefits of expressive writing vary as a function of writing instructions, ethnicity and ambivalence over emotional expression. Psychol Health, 25:669-684.
• Lumley MA, Provenzano KM (2003) Stress management through written emotional disclosure improves academic performance among college students with physical symptoms.J Educ Psychol, 95:641-649.
• Manier D, Olivares A (2005) Who benefits from expressive writing? Moderator variables affecting outcomes of emotional disclosure interventions. CCPJ, 2:1545-4452.
• Nazarian D, Smyth JM (2013) An experimental test of instructional manipulations in expressive writing interventions: Examining process of change. J Soc Clin Psychol, 32:71-96.
• Niles AN, Haltom KE, Byrne-Mulvenna CM, Lieberman MD, Stanton AL (2014) Randomized controlled trial of expressive writing for psychological and physical health: the moderating role of emotional expressivity. Anxiety Stress Coping, 27:1-17.
• Norman SA, Lumley MA, Dooley JA, Diamond MP (2004) For whom does it work? Moderators of the effects of written emotional disclosure in a randomized trial among women with chronic pelvic pain. Psychosom Med, 66:174-183.
• North RJ, Pai AV, Hixon G, Holahan CJ (2011) Finding happiness in negative emotions: An experimental test of a novel expressive writing paradigm. J Posit Psychol, 6:192-203.
• O’connor DB, Hurling R, Hendrickx H, Osborne G, Hall J, Walklet E et al. (2011) Effects of written emotional disclosure on implicit self-esteem and body image. Br J Health Psychol,16:488–501.
• Paez, D, Velasco C, Gonzalez, JL (1999) Expressive writing and the role of alexithymia as a dispositional deficit in self-disclosure and psychological health. J Pers Soc Psychol, 77:630-641.
• Park CL, Blumberg CJ (2002) Disclosing trauma through writing: Testing the meaning-making hypothesis.Cognit Ther Res, 26:597-616.
• Parker JS, Stewart GS, Gantt C (2006) Research and intervention with adolescents exposed to domestic violence. Fam Ther, 33:45-52.
• Pennebaker J, Chung C (2007) Expressive writing, emotional upheavals, and health. In Foundations of Health Psychology. (Eds H Friedman, RC Silver): 263-284. New York, Oxford University Press.
• Pennebaker JW (1997) Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process, Psychol Sci, 8:162-166.
• Pennebaker JW (2004) Theories, therapies, and taxpayers: On the complexities of the expressive writing paradigm. Clin Psychol Sci Pract, 11:138-142.
• Pennebaker JW, Beall SK (1986) Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. J Abnorm Psychol, 95:274-281.
• Pennebaker JW, Colder M, Sharp LK (1990) Accelerating the coping process. J Pers Soc Psychol, 58:528-537.
• Pennebaker JW, Graybeal A (2001) Patterns of natural language use: Disclosure, personality and social integration. Curr Dir in Psychol Sci, 10:90-93.
• Pennebaker JW, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R (1988) Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. J Consult Clin Psychol, 56:239-245. Pennebaker JW, Mayne TJ, Francis ME (1997) Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. J Pers Soc Psychol, 72:863-871.
• Pennebaker JW, Seagal JD (1999) Forming a story: The health benefits of narrative. J Clin Psychol, 55:1243-1254.
• Poon A, Danoff-Burg S (2011) Mindfulness as a moderator in expressive writing. J Clin Psychol, 67:881-895.
• Radcliffe AM, Lumley MA, Kendall J, Stevenson JK, Beltran J (2010) Written emotional disclosure: Testing whether social disclosure matters. J Soc Clin Psychol, 26:362–384.
• Ramirez G, Beilock S (2011) Writing about testing worries boosts exam performance in the classroom. Science, 331:211-213.
• Richards JM, Beal WE, Seagal JD, Pennebaker JW (2000) Effects of disclosure of traumatic events on illness behavior among psychiatric prison inmates. J Abnorm Psychol,10:156-160.
• Schwartz L, Drotar D (2004) Effects of written emotional disclosure on caregivers of children and adolescents with chronic illness. J Pediatr Psychol, 29:105-118. Selye H (1976) The stress of life. New York, McGraw-Hill.
• Slavin-Spenny OM, Cohen JL, Oberleitner LM, Lumley MA (2011) The Effects of Different Methods of Emotional Disclosure: Differentiating Post-Traumatic Growth from Stress Symptoms J Clin Psychol, 67:993-1007.
• Sloan D M Marx BP (2006) Exposure through written emotional disclosure: Two case examples. Cogn Behav Pract, 13:227-234. Sloan DM, Feinstein BA, Marx BP (2009) The durability of beneficial health effects associated with expressive writing. Anxiety Stress Coping, 22:509-523.
• Sloan DM, Marx BP (2004a) Taking pen to hand: Evaluating theories underlying the written disclosure paradigm. Clin Psychol Sci Pract, 11:121- 137.
• Sloan DM, Marx BP (2004b) A closer examination of the structured written disclosure procedure. J Consult Clin Psychol, 72:165-175.
• Sloan DM, Marx BP, Epstein EM (2005) Further examination of the exposure model underlying the efficacy of written emotional disclosure. J Consult Clin Psychol, 73:549-554.
• Sloan DM, Marx BP, Epstein EM, Lexington JM (2007) Does altering the writing instructions influence outcome associated with written disclosure? Behav Ther, 38:155-168.
• Small R, Lumley J, Donohue L, Potter A, Waldenstrom U (2000) Randomised controlled trial of midwife led debriefing to reduce maternal depression after operative childbirth. BMJ, 321:1043-1047.
• Smyth J (1998) Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, unique suicidal bereavement. Suicide Life Threat Behav, 30:50-60.
• Smyth J, True N, Souto N (2001) Effects of writing about traumatic experiences: The necessity for narrative structuring. J Soc Clin Psychol, 20:161-172.
• Smyth JM, Stone AA, Hurewitz AN, Kaell AT (1999) Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized trial. JAMA, 281:1304–1309.
• Soliday E, Garofalo JP, Rogers D (2004) Expressive writing intervention for adolescents' somatic symptoms and mood. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 33:792-801.
• Soper B, Bergen CWV (2001) Employment counseling and life stressors: Coping through expressive writing. Journal of Employment Counseling, 38:150-160.
• Spera S, Morin DB, Buhrfeind ED, Pennebaker JW (1994) Expressive writing and coping with job loss. Acad Manage J, 37:722-733.
• Stanton A, Danoff-Burg S, Sworowski LA ve ark. (2002) Randomized, controlled trial of written emotional expression and benefit finding in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol, 20:4160-4168.
• Stanton AL, Danoff-Burg S, Cameron CL, Bishop M, Twillman R, Collins CA et al. (2000) Emotionally expressive coping predicts psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer. J Consult Clin Psychol, 68:875-882.
• Stockton H, Joseph S, Hunt N (2014) Expressive writing and posttraumatic growth: An internet-based study. Traumatology: An International Journal, 20:75–83.
• Stroebe M, Stroebe W, Zech E ve ark. (2002) Does disclosure of emotions facilitate recovery from bereavement? Evidence from two prospective studies. J Consult Clin Psychol, 70:169-178.
• Ulrich PM, Lutgendorf SK (2002) Journaling about stressful events: Effects of cognitive processing and emotional expression. Ann Behav Med, 24:244-250.
• Warner LJ, Lumley MA, Casey J, Pierantoni W, Salazar R, Zoratti EM et al. (2006) Health effects of written emotional disclosure in adolescents with asthma: A randomized, controlled trial. J Pediatr Psychol, 31:557-568.
• Yamasaki K, Uchida K, Katsuma L (2008) An intervention study of the relations of positive affect to the coping strategy of ‘Finding Positive Meaning’ and health. Psychol Health Med, 13:597-604.
• Zakowski SG, Ramati A, Morton C, Johnson P, Flanigan R (2004) Written emotional disclosure buffers the effects of social constraints on distress among cancer patients. Health Psychol, 23:555-563.