Identification with Game Characters: Theoretical Explanations, Predictors, and Psychological Outcomes

Year 2023, Volume: 15 Issue: 2, 203 - 219, 30.06.2023

Özlem İskender

https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1104693

Abstract

This review investigates theoretical explanations, predictors, and psychological outcomes of identification with game characters. Theoretical explanations depended on Cohen’s conceptualization of identification with media characters, wishful identification, similarity identification, embodied presence concepts, self-perception, self-discrepancy, and social identity theories. Predictors included customizability, how the character is perceived (ideal, attractive, similar, real), narrative, immersion, presence, age, time spent playing/playing history, player’s psychological characteristics, and perceived performance. Psychological outcomes included enjoyment, flow experience, addiction, problematic gaming, playing motivations, self-efficacy, competence, short-term outcomes (change in aggression, empathy), intention to continue playing, game-related spending, social identification, and in-group bias. The self-discrepancy perspective provides the most prevalent explanation, which proposes that game characters are closer to players’ ideal selves, and identification with the game character reduces their self-discrepancies. However, the social identity perspective offers more overarching explanations discussing identification with game-related groups (groups created within the game and game community) and the game character together, thus pointing to a bigger picture where players develop social identities through interaction with game-related groups. Therefore, unlike other explanations discussing game character identification as a temporary experience, the social identity perspective indicates it may be a lasting experience. Regarding predictors, only two were game-related (customizability, narrative), while most were player-related (e.g., age, time spent playing, player’s psychological characteristics), which might show that player characteristics deserve more attention than the game itself to understand the identification process. Concerning psychological outcomes, while two were positive (enjoyment, flow experience) and two were negative (addiction, problematic gaming), most had various aftermaths, such as a short-term outcome of an increase in aggression or empathy.

Keywords

Video games, game character, identification, self-discrepancy, social-identification

Supporting Institution

-

Project Number

-

Thanks

-

Oyun Karakteriyle Özdeşleşme: Teorik Açıklamaları, Öncülleri ve Psikolojik Çıktıları

Abstract

Bu derleme çalışması, oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin teorik açıklamalarını, öncüllerini ve psikolojik çıktılarını incelemektedir. Teorik açıklamalar, Cohen’in medya karakterleriyle özdeşleşme kavramsallaştırmasına, arzulanan özdeşleşme, benzerlik özdeşleşmesi, somutlaşmış bulunuşluk kavramlarına, kendini algılama, benlik uyuşmazlığı ve sosyal kimlik teorilerine dayanmıştır. Oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin öncülleri şunları içermiştir: Kişiselleştirilebilirlik, oyun karakterinin nasıl algılandığı (ideal, çekici, benzer, gerçek), öyküleme, dalma, bulunuşluk, yaş, oynamaya harcanan süre/oynama geçmişi, oyuncunun psikolojik özellikleri ve algılanan performans. Psikolojik çıktıları ise şunları içermiştir: Keyif alma, akış deneyimi, bağımlılık, problemli oynama, oynama motivasyonları, öz-yeterlik, yeterlik hissi, kısa süreli çıktılar (saldırganlık ve empatide değişim), oynamaya devam etme niyeti, oyunla ilgili harcama yapma, sosyal özdeşleşme ve iç-grup yanlılığı. Oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin en geçerli açıklamasını, oyun karakterlerinin, oyuncuların ideal benliklerine daha yakın olduğunu ve oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmenin benlik uyuşmazlıklarını azaltabileceğini savunan benlik uyuşmazlığı yaklaşımı sağlamıştır. Ancak, sosyal kimlik perspektifi, oyunla ilgili gruplarla (oyun içinde oluşturulan gruplar ve oyun topluluğu) ve oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmeyi birlikte ele alarak daha kapsayıcı açıklamalar sunmuş, oyuncuların, oyunla ilgili gruplarla etkileşimleri vasıtasıyla sosyal kimlikler geliştirdiğini gösteren büyük resmi de tasvir etmiştir. Böylece, oyun karakteriyle özdeşleşmeyi geçici bir deneyim olarak ele alan diğer açıklamaların aksine, uzun süreli bir deneyim olabileceğini göstermiştir. Öncüllere bakıldığında, yalnızca ikisinin oyunla ilgili olduğu (kişiselleştirilebilirlik, öyküleme), çoğunun ise oyuncuyla ilgili olduğu (yaş, oynamaya harcanan süre, oyuncuların psikolojik özellikleri gibi) görülmüştür. Bu, özdeşleşme sürecini anlamada, oyuncu özelliklerinin, oyundan daha önemli olduğunu gösteriyor olabilir. Psikolojik çıktılara bakıldığında, ikisinin olumlu (keyif alma, akış deneyimi), ikisinin olumsuz (bağımlılık, problemli oynama) olarak değerlendirilmesi mümkünken, birçoğunun çok çeşitli neticeleri olabildiği görülmüştür, saldırganlıkta ya da empatide kısa süreli bir değişim gibi.

Keywords

Video oyunları, oyun karakteri, özdeşleşme, benlik çelişkisi, sosyal özdeşleşme

Project Number

-

References

• Bachen CM, Hernández-Ramos P, Raphael C, Waldron A (2016) How do presence, flow, and character identification affect players’ empathy and interest in learning from a serious computer game? Comput Human Behav, 64:77-87.
• Bandura A (1986) The social learning perspective: Mechanisms of aggression. In Psychology of Crime and Criminal Justice. (Ed H Toch):198-236.Prospect Heights, IL, Waveland Press.
• Barlett C, Branch O, Rodeheffer C, Harris R (2009) How long do the short‐term violent video game effects last? Aggress Behav, 35:225-236.
• Barr M, Copeland-Stewart A (2022) Playing video games during the COVID-19 pandemic and effects on players’ well-being. Games Cult, 17:122-139.
• Bessière K, Seay AF, Kiesler S (2007) The ideal elf: Identity exploration in World of Warcraft. Cyberpsychol Behav, 10:530-535.
• Bowey JT, Depping AE, Mandryk RL (2017) Don't talk dirty to me: How sexist beliefs affect experience in sexist games. CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, May 2017. Congress Proceedings pp.1530-1543.
• Brkljačić T, Sučić I, Tkalić RG, Wertag A, Lučić L (2019) Games we play: Wellbeing of players of live and digital games. In Multifaceted Approach to Digital Addiction and Its Treatment, 1st ed. (Ed. B Bozoğlan): 118-137. Hershey, PA, USA, IGI Global.
• Burleigh TL, Stavropoulos V, Liew LW, Adams BL, Griffiths MD (2018) Depression, internet gaming disorder, and the moderating effect of the gamer-avatar relationship: An exploratory longitudinal study. Int J Ment Health Addict, 16:102-124.
• Cohen J (2001) Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Commun Soc, 4:245-264.
• Csikszentmihalyi M (1975) Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass.
• DFC Intelligence (2022) Global video game consumer segmentation. https://www.dfcint.com/product/video-game-consumer-segmentation-2/ (retrieved Jan 30, 2022).
• Dindar M (2018) Do people play MMORPGs for extrinsic or intrinsic rewards? Telemat Inform, 35:1877-1886.
• Drummond A, Sauer JD, Ferguson CJ (2020) Do longitudinal studies support long-term relationships between aggressive game play and youth aggressive behaviour? A meta-analytic examination. R Soc Open Sci, 7:200373.
• Ferchaud A, Seibert J, Sellers N, Escobar Salazar N (2020) Reducing mental health stigma through identification with video game avatars with mental illness. Front Psychol, 11:1-10.
• Fuster H, Carbonell X, Chamarro A, Oberst U (2013) Interaction with the game and motivation among players of massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Span J Psychol, 16:1-8.
• Gabbiadini A, Mari S, Volpato C, Monaci MG (2014) Identification processes in online groups. J Media Psychol, 26:141-152.
• Gabbiadini A, Riva P, Andrighetto L, Volpato C, Bushman BJ (2016) Acting like a tough guy: Violent-sexist video games, identification with game characters, masculine beliefs, & empathy for female violence victims. PLoS One, 11:1-14.
• Gao X, Pan W, Li C, Weng L, Yao M, Chen A (2017) Long-time exposure to violent video games does not show desensitization on empathy for pain: an fMRI study. Front Psychol, 8:650.
• Green R, Delfabbro PH, King DL (2021) Avatar identification and problematic gaming: The role of self-concept clarity. Addict Behav, 113: 106694.
• Griffiths MD, Davies MNO, Chappell D (2004) Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming. Cyberpsychol Behav, 7:479-487.
• Guegan J, Moliner P, Buisine S (2015) Why are online games so self-involving: A social identity analysis of massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Eur J Soc Psychol, 45:349-355.
• Hefner D, Klimmt C, Vorderer P (2007) Identification with the player character as determinant of video game enjoyment. International Conference on Entertainment Computing, September 15-17 2007 Shanghai, China. Congress Proceedings pp.39-48.
• Higgins ET (1987) Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychol Rev, 94:319-340.
• Hoffner C, Buchanan M (2005) Young adults' wishful identification with television characters: The role of perceived similarity and character attributes. Media Psychol, 7:325-351.
• Kim C, Lee SG, Kang M (2012) I became an attractive person in the virtual world: Users’ identification with virtual communities and avatars. Comput Human Behav, 28:1663-1669.
• Klimmt C, Hefner D, Vorderer P (2009) The video game experience as “true” identification: A theory of enjoyable alterations of players’ self-perception. Commun Theory, 19:351-373.
• Ko DW, Park J (2020) I am you, you are me: Game character congruence with the ideal self. Internet Research, 31:613-634.
• Konijn, E. A., Nije Bijvank, M., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Dev Psychol, 43:1038-1044.
• Kühn S, Kugler DT, Schmalen K, Weichenberger M, Witt C, Gallinat J (2019) Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Mol Psychiatry, 24:1220-1234.
• Lewis ML, Weber R, Bowman ND (2008) "They may be pixels, but they're my pixels:" Developing a metric of character attachment in role-playing video games. Cyberpsychol Behav, 11:515-518.
• Li DD, Liau AK, Khoo A (2013) Player-Avatar identification in video gaming: Concept and measurement. Comput Human Behav, 29:257-263.
• Li BJ, Ratan R, Lwin MO (2021) Virtual game changers: How avatars and virtual coaches influence exergame outcomes through enactive and vicarious learning. Behav Inf Technol, 1-15.
• Liao GY, Cheng TCE, Teng CI (2019) How do avatar attractiveness and customization impact online gamers’ flow and loyalty? Internet Research, 29:349-366.
• Mancini T, Sibilla F (2017) Offline personality and avatar customisation. Discrepancy profiles and avatar identification in a sample of MMORPG players. Comput Human Behav, 69:275-283.
• Mancini T, Imperato C, Sibilla F (2019) Does avatar's character and emotional bond expose to gaming addiction? Two studies on virtual self-discrepancy, avatar identification and gaming addiction in massively multiplayer online role-playing game players. Comput Human Behav, 92:297-305.
• McDonald DG, Kim H (2001) When I die, I feel small: Electronic game characters and the social self. J Broadcast Electron Media, 45:241-258.
• Olivier L, Sterkenburg P, Van Rensburg E (2019) The effect of a serious game on empathy and prejudice of psychology students towards persons with disabilities. Afr J Disabil, 8:328.
• Papoutsi C, Drigas A (2016) Games for empathy for social impact. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (iJEP), 6:36-40.
• Park BW, Lee KC (2011) Exploring the value of purchasing online game items. Comput Human Behav, 27:2178-2185.
• Peng W (2008) The mediational role of identification in the relationship between experience mode and self-efficacy: Enactive role-playing versus passive observation. Cyberpsychol Behav, 11:649-652.
• Pimentel D, Kalyanaraman S (2020) Customizing your demons: Anxiety reduction via anthropomorphizing and destroying an “anxiety avatar”. Front Psychol, 11:566682.
• Robinson JA (2012) Developing social identities in massively multiplayer online role-playing games (Master’s thesis). Kingston, United States, University of Rhode Island.
• Schneider EF, Lang A, Shin M, Bradley SD (2004) Death with a story: How story impacts emotional, motivational, and physiological responses to first-person shooter video games. Hum Commun Res, 30:361-375.
• Sherry JL (2004) Flow and media enjoyment. Commun Theory, 14:328-347.
• Sioni SR, Burleson MH, Bekerian DA (2017) Internet gaming disorder: Social phobia and identifying with your virtual self. Comput Human Behav, 71:11-15.
• Smahel D, Blinka L, Ledabyl O (2008) Playing MMORPGs: Connections between addiction and identifying with a character. Cyberpsychol Behav, 11:715-718.
• Soutter ARB, Hitchens M (2016) The relationship between character identification and flow state within video games. Comput Human Behav, 55:1030-1038.
• Sterkenburg PS, Vacaru VS (2018) The effectiveness of a serious game to enhance empathy for care workers for people with disabilities: A parallel randomized controlled trial. Disabil Health J, 11:576-582.
• Susi T, Johannesson M, Backlund P (2007) Serious games: An overview. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220017759_Serious_Games_-_An_Overview (retrieved Jan 30, 2022).
• Szycik GR, Mohammadi B, Münte TF, Te Wildt BT (2017) Lack of evidence that neural empathic responses are blunted in excessive users of violent video games: An fMRI study. Front Psychol, 8:174.
• Tajfel H, Turner JC (1979) An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relation. (Eds WG Austin, S Worchel):33-47. Monterey, CA, Brooks/Cole.
• Teng CI (2021) How can avatar’s item customizability impact gamer loyalty? Telemat Inform, 62:1-12.
• T’ng ST, Pau K (2021) Identification of avatar mediates the associations between motivations of gaming and internet gaming disorder among the Malaysian youth. Int J Ment Health Addict, 19:1346-1361.
• Trepte S, Reinecke L (2010) Avatar creation and video game enjoyment: Effects of life-satisfaction, game competitiveness, and identification with the avatar. J Media Psychol, 22:171-184.
• Turkay S, Kinzer CK (2014) The effects of avatar-based customization on player identification. Int J Gaming Comput Mediat Simul, 6:1-26.
• Van Looy J, Courtois C, De Vocht M, De Marez L (2012) Player identification in online games: Validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMOGs. Media Psychol, 15:197-221.
• Van Looy J, Courtois C, De Voch M (2014) Self-discrepancy and MMORPGs: Testing the moderating effects of avatar identication and pathological gaming in World of Warcraft. In Multiplayer: The Social Aspects of Digital Gaming. (Eds T Quandt, S Kröger):236-244. London and New York, Routledge.
• Van Reijmersdal EA, Jansz J, Peters O, van Noort G (2013) Why girls go pink: Game character identification and game-players’ motivations. Comput Human Behav, 29:2640-2649.
• Von Feilitzen C, Linne´ O (1975) Identifying with television characters. J Commun, 25:51-55.
• Vorderer P, Hartmann T, Klimmt C (2003) Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: The role of competition. International Conference on Entertainment Computing, May 8-10 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Congress Proceedings pp.1-9.
• Yee N (2005) Motivations of play in MMORPGs: Results from a factor analytic approach. http://www.nickyee.com/daedalus/motivations.pdf (retrieved September 2, 2021).
• You S, Kim E, Lee D (2017) Virtually actual: Exploring avatar identification in game addiction among massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) players. Games Cult, 12:56-71.
• Zanetta Dauriat F, Zermatten A, Billieux J, Thorens G, Bondolfi G, Zullino D, et al. (2011) Motivations to play specifically predict excessive involvement in massively multiplayer online role-playing games: Evidence from an online survey. Eur Addict Res, 17:185-189.