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Postpartum Paternal Depression: Its Impact on Family and Child Development

Year 2023, Volume: 15 Issue: 3, 498 - 507, 30.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1153712

Abstract

The postpartum period is when parents undergo great changes and gain new responsibilities. Factors such as the changes that come with having a baby, not meeting the expectations about parenthood, having a child with a difficult temperament or health problems, or relational problems can be quite challenging in this period. These problems can deeply affect the psychological well-being of the parents. Although studies on depressive symptoms of mothers during pregnancy and postpartum are at an important level, studies aiming to examine the psychological state of fathers for the same period are still limited. However, perceptions that postpartum depression develops due to hormonal changes during pregnancy have been reshaped by the findings that this situation may also develop due to psychosocial factors. Relatedly, the number of studies on postpartum depression experienced by fathers has increased over time. Results of those studies show that fathers' psychological state also influences their parenting and the development of children. Fathers may experience paternal depression due to a lack of social support, economic conditions, relationship dynamics, and changing living conditions in the postpartum period. This situation may cause fathers to avoid parenting duties, spend less time with their children, be unable to cooperate with the mother, and have anger problems or deterioration in the relationship with the mother. The effects of depression on individuals' parenting styles negatively affect child-parent attachment and may cause children to develop emotional and behavioral problems. Therefore, it is very important to examine fathers' psychological state for children's development and the healthy progress of family dynamics. This review aims to address the effect of paternal depression on parenting and child development.

References

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  • Bakermans-Kranenburg M, Lotz A, Alyousefi-van Dijk K, van IJzendoorn M (2019) Birth of a father: fathering in the first 1,000 days. Child Dev Perspect, 13:247-253.
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  • Boyce P (2003) Risk factors for postnatal depression: a review and risk factors in Australian populations. Arch Womens Ment Health, 6:43-50.
  • Brockington I (2004) Postpartum psychiatric disorders. Lancet, 363:303-310.
  • Cameron E, Hunter D, Sedov I, Tomfohr-Madsen L (2017) What do dads want? Treatment preferences for paternal postpartum depression. J Affect Disord, 215:62-70.
  • Carro M, Grant K, Gotlib I, Compas B (1993) Postpartum depression and child development: an investigation of mothers and fathers as sources of risk and resilience. Dev Psychopathol, 5:567-579
  • Ceyhun-Peker A, Cömert-Okutucu A, Tekiner A, Dağlı Z (2016) Babalarda doğum sonu depresyonu ve etkili olan faktörlerin değerlendirilmesi. Konuralp Tıp Dergisi, 8:141-146.
  • Choi P, Henshaw C, Baker S, Tree J (2005) Supermum, superwife, supereverything: performing femininity in the transition to motherhood. J Reprod Infant Psychol, 23:167-180.
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  • Eddy B, Poll V, Whiting J, Clevesy M (2019) Forgotten fathers: postpartum depression in men. J Fam Issues, 40:1001-1017.
  • Edhborg M, Carlberg M, Simon F, Lindberg L (2016) “Waiting for better times”: experiences in the first postpartum year by Swedish fathers with depressive symptoms. Am J Mens Health, 10:428-439.
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  • Gao L, Chan S, Mao Q (2009) Depression, perceived stress, and social support among first-time Chinese mothers and fathers in the postpartum period. Res Nurs Health, 32:50-58.
  • Goodman J (2004) Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. J Adv Nurs, 45:26-35.
  • Goodman S, Rouse M, Connell A, Broth M, Hall C, Heyward D (2011) Maternal depression and child psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin Child Fam Psychol, 14:1-27.
  • Gross H, Shaw D, Moilanen K, Dishion T, Wilson M (2008) Reciprocal models of child behavior and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers in a sample of children at risk for early conduct problems. J Fam Psychol, 22:742-751.
  • Güleç D, Kavlak O, Sevil Ü (2014) Ebeveynlerin doğum sonu yaşadıkları duygusal sorunlar ve hemşirelik bakımı. Hemşirelikte Eğitim ve Araştırma Dergisi, 11:54-60.
  • Hagekull B, Bohlin G (1992) Prevalence of problematic behaviors in four-year-olds. Scand J Psychol, 33:359-369.
  • Hanington L, Heron J, Stein A, Ramchandani P (2011) Parental depression and child outcomes – is marital conflict the missing link? Child Care Health Dev, 38:520-529.
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  • Johansson M, Nordström T, Svensson I (2020) Depressive symptoms, parental stress, and attachment style in mothers and fathers two and a half years after childbirth: are fathers as affected as mothers? J Child Health Care, 1-11.
  • John W, Cameron C, McVeigh C (2005) Meeting the challenge of new fatherhood during the early weeks. Clin Res, 34:180-189.
  • Jordan P (1990) Laboring for relevance: expectant and new fatherhood. Nurs Res, 39:11-16.
  • Kendler K, Gardner C, Prescott C (2006) Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men. Am J Psychiatry, 163:115-124.
  • Kim P, Swain J (2007) Sad dads: paternal postpartum depression. Psychiatry, 4:35-47.
  • Leigh B, Milgrom J (2008) Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry, 8:1-11.
  • Loeber R, Hay D (1997) Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annu Rev Psychol, 48:371-410.
  • Madsen S, Juhl T (2007) Paternal depression in the postnatal period assessed with traditional and male depression scales. J Mens Health Gend, 4:26-31.
  • Marchand J, Hock E (2003) Mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms and conflict resolution strategies in the marriage and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors. J Genet Psychol, 164:227-239.
  • Massoudi P (2013) Depression and stress in Swedish fathers in the postnatal period- prevalence, correlates, identification and support (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Gothenburg.
  • McCoy S (2012) Postpartum depression in men. In Perinatal Depression (Ed MGR Castillo):163-176. London, UK, IntechOpen.
  • McIntyre R, Mancini D, Eisfeld B, Soczynska J, Grupp L, Konarski J et al. (2006) Calculated bioavailable testosterone levels and depression in middle-aged men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31:1029-1035.
  • Melrose S (2010) Paternal postpartum depression: how can nurses begin to help? Contemp Nurse, 34:199-210.
  • Mezulis A, Hyde S, Clark R (2004) Father involvement moderates the effect of maternal depression during a child’s infancy on child behavior problems in kindergarten. J Fam Psychol, 18:575-588.
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  • Nishimura A, Ohashi K (2010) Risk factors of paternal depression in the early postnatal period in Japan. Nurs Health Sci, 15:1-8.
  • Papp L, Goeke-Morey M, Cummings M (2007) Linkages between spouses’ psychological distress and marital conflict in the home. J Fam Psychol, 21:533-537.
  • Paulson J, Keefe H, Leiferman J (2009) Early parental depression and child language development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 50:254-262.
  • Paulson J, Bazemore S, Goodman J, Leiferman J (2016) The course and interrelationship of maternal and paternal perinatal depression. Arch Womens Ment Health, 19:655-663.
  • Perez C, Brahm P, Riquelme S, Riviera C, Jaramillo K, Eickhorst A (2017) Paternal post-partum depression: how has it been assessed? A literature review. Ment Health Prev, 7:28-36.
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Doğum Sonrası Babalık Depresyonu: Aile ve Çocuk Gelişimine Etkisi

Year 2023, Volume: 15 Issue: 3, 498 - 507, 30.09.2023
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1153712

Abstract

Doğum sonrası dönem, ebeveynlerin büyük değişimlerden geçtiği ve yeni sorumluluklar kazandığı bir dönemdir. Bebek sahibi olmakla birlikte gelen değişiklikler, ebeveynliğe dair beklentileri karşılayamama, zor mizaçlı ya da sağlık sorunları yaşayan bir çocuk sahibi olma ya da ilişkisel problemler gibi faktörler bu dönemde oldukça zorlayıcı olabilmekte ve ebeveynlerin psikolojik iyi oluşlarını derinden etkileyebilmektedir. Gebelik süreci ve doğum sonrasında annelerin depresif semptomlarına dair araştırmalar önemli bir seviyede olsa da aynı dönem için babaların psikolojik durumunu incelemeyi hedefleyen çalışmalar halen sınırlıdır. Ancak doğum sonrası depresyonun gebelikteki hormonal değişimlere bağlı olarak geliştiğine dair algılar, bu durumun psikososyal faktörlere de bağlı olarak gelişebildiğine yönelik bulgular tarafından yeniden şekillendirilmiş ve alanyazında babaların deneyimlediği doğum sonrası depresyonunu da konu alan çalışmaların sayısı zaman içerisinde artmıştır. Araştırmalar incelendiğinde, babaların psikolojik durumunun da ebeveynlikleri ve çocuklarının gelişimi üzerinde etkili olduğu gözlemlenebilmektedir. Doğum sonrası dönemde sosyal destek eksikliği, ekonomik koşullar, ilişki dinamikleri ve değişen yaşam koşulları gibi faktörlerin de etkisiyle babalar babalık depresyonunu deneyimleyebilmektedir. Bu durum babaların ebeveynliğe dair görevlerden kaçınmasına, çocuklarıyla daha az zaman geçirmesine, anneyle iş birliği yapamamasına, öfke problemlerine ya da anne ile olan ilişkide bozulmaya neden olabilmektedir. Depresyonun bireylerin ebeveynlik stilleri üzerindeki etkileri, çocuk-ebeveyn bağlanmasını olumsuz etkilemekte ve çocukların duygusal ve davranışsal problemler geliştirmesine neden olabilmektedir. Dolayısıyla çocukların gelişimi ve aile dinamiklerinin sağlıklı ilerleyişi için, babaların da psikolojik durumunu incelemek oldukça önemlidir. Bu çalışma ile, babalık depresyonunun ebeveynliğe ve çocukların gelişimine etkisine değinilmesi amaçlanmıştır.

References

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  • APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Washington D.C, American Psychiatric Association.
  • Anderson A (1996) The father-infant relationship: becoming connected. J Soc Pediatr Nurs, 1:83-92.
  • Bakermans-Kranenburg M, Lotz A, Alyousefi-van Dijk K, van IJzendoorn M (2019) Birth of a father: fathering in the first 1,000 days. Child Dev Perspect, 13:247-253.
  • Ballard C, Davis R, Cullen P, Mohan R, Dean C (1994) Prevalence of postnatal psychiatric morbidity in mothers and fathers. Br J Psychiatry, 164:782-788.
  • Bergström M (2013) Depressive symptoms in new first-time fathers: associations with age, sociodemographic characteristics, and antenatal psychological well-being. Birth, 40:32-38.
  • Boyce P (2003) Risk factors for postnatal depression: a review and risk factors in Australian populations. Arch Womens Ment Health, 6:43-50.
  • Brockington I (2004) Postpartum psychiatric disorders. Lancet, 363:303-310.
  • Cameron E, Hunter D, Sedov I, Tomfohr-Madsen L (2017) What do dads want? Treatment preferences for paternal postpartum depression. J Affect Disord, 215:62-70.
  • Carro M, Grant K, Gotlib I, Compas B (1993) Postpartum depression and child development: an investigation of mothers and fathers as sources of risk and resilience. Dev Psychopathol, 5:567-579
  • Ceyhun-Peker A, Cömert-Okutucu A, Tekiner A, Dağlı Z (2016) Babalarda doğum sonu depresyonu ve etkili olan faktörlerin değerlendirilmesi. Konuralp Tıp Dergisi, 8:141-146.
  • Choi P, Henshaw C, Baker S, Tree J (2005) Supermum, superwife, supereverything: performing femininity in the transition to motherhood. J Reprod Infant Psychol, 23:167-180.
  • Chuick C, Greenfeld S, Shepard S, Cochran S, Haley J (2009) A qualitative investigation of depression in men. Psychol Men Masc, 10:302-313.
  • Cicchetti D, Rogosch F (2001) Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Dev Psychol, 13:677-693.
  • Condon J, Corkindale C, Boyce P (2004) The first-time fathers study: a prospective study of the mental health and wellbeing of men during the transition to parenthood. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 38:6-64.
  • Condon J, Corkindale C, Gamble E (2013) A longitudinal study of father-toinfant attachment: antecedents and correlates. J Reprod Infant Psychol, 31:15-30.
  • Cummings E, Keller P, Davies P (2005) Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 46:479-489.
  • Dalfen A (2009) When Baby Brings the Blues: Solutions for Postpartum Depression. Mississauga, Wiley.
  • Dave S, Sherr L, Senior R, Nazareth I (2008) Associations between paternal depression and behaviour problems in children of 4–6 years. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 17:306-315.
  • Downey G, Coyne J (1990) Children of depressed parents: an integrative review. Psychol Bull, 108:50-76.
  • Draper J (2003) Men’s passage to fatherhood: an analysis of the contemporary relevance of transition theory. Nurs Inq, 10:66-78.
  • Eddy B, Poll V, Whiting J, Clevesy M (2019) Forgotten fathers: postpartum depression in men. J Fam Issues, 40:1001-1017.
  • Edhborg M, Carlberg M, Simon F, Lindberg L (2016) “Waiting for better times”: experiences in the first postpartum year by Swedish fathers with depressive symptoms. Am J Mens Health, 10:428-439.
  • Ertekin Pınar S, Ozbek H (2022) Paternal depression and attachment levels of first‐time fathers in Turkey. Perspect Psychiatr Care, 58:1082-1088.
  • Feldman J, Wilson M, Shaw D (2020) Relations between early childhood paternal depression and preschool- and school-age psychosocial functioning. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 51:1-15.
  • Ferreira L (2016) Postnatal depression and the evaluation of an integrative parenting programme (Doctoral dissertation). Potchefstroom, North-West University.
  • Fletcher R, Feeman E, Garfield C, Vimpani G (2011) The effects of early paternal depression on children’s development. Med J Aust, 195:685-689.
  • Frank L, Corcoran P (2018) Paternal postnatal depression in Ireland: prevalence and associated factors. Midwifery, 56:121-127.
  • Garfield C, Isacco A, Bartlo W (2010) Men’s health and fatherhood in the urban midwestern United States. Int J Mens Health, 9:161-174.
  • Gao L, Chan S, Mao Q (2009) Depression, perceived stress, and social support among first-time Chinese mothers and fathers in the postpartum period. Res Nurs Health, 32:50-58.
  • Goodman J (2004) Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. J Adv Nurs, 45:26-35.
  • Goodman S, Rouse M, Connell A, Broth M, Hall C, Heyward D (2011) Maternal depression and child psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin Child Fam Psychol, 14:1-27.
  • Gross H, Shaw D, Moilanen K, Dishion T, Wilson M (2008) Reciprocal models of child behavior and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers in a sample of children at risk for early conduct problems. J Fam Psychol, 22:742-751.
  • Güleç D, Kavlak O, Sevil Ü (2014) Ebeveynlerin doğum sonu yaşadıkları duygusal sorunlar ve hemşirelik bakımı. Hemşirelikte Eğitim ve Araştırma Dergisi, 11:54-60.
  • Hagekull B, Bohlin G (1992) Prevalence of problematic behaviors in four-year-olds. Scand J Psychol, 33:359-369.
  • Hanington L, Heron J, Stein A, Ramchandani P (2011) Parental depression and child outcomes – is marital conflict the missing link? Child Care Health Dev, 38:520-529.
  • Işık S, Egelioğlu Cetişli N (2020) Paternal depresyon ve baba-bebek bağlanması arasındaki ilişki. Cukurova Medical Journal, 45:1663-1671.
  • Johansson M, Nordström T, Svensson I (2020) Depressive symptoms, parental stress, and attachment style in mothers and fathers two and a half years after childbirth: are fathers as affected as mothers? J Child Health Care, 1-11.
  • John W, Cameron C, McVeigh C (2005) Meeting the challenge of new fatherhood during the early weeks. Clin Res, 34:180-189.
  • Jordan P (1990) Laboring for relevance: expectant and new fatherhood. Nurs Res, 39:11-16.
  • Kendler K, Gardner C, Prescott C (2006) Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men. Am J Psychiatry, 163:115-124.
  • Kim P, Swain J (2007) Sad dads: paternal postpartum depression. Psychiatry, 4:35-47.
  • Leigh B, Milgrom J (2008) Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry, 8:1-11.
  • Loeber R, Hay D (1997) Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annu Rev Psychol, 48:371-410.
  • Madsen S, Juhl T (2007) Paternal depression in the postnatal period assessed with traditional and male depression scales. J Mens Health Gend, 4:26-31.
  • Marchand J, Hock E (2003) Mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms and conflict resolution strategies in the marriage and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors. J Genet Psychol, 164:227-239.
  • Massoudi P (2013) Depression and stress in Swedish fathers in the postnatal period- prevalence, correlates, identification and support (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Gothenburg.
  • McCoy S (2012) Postpartum depression in men. In Perinatal Depression (Ed MGR Castillo):163-176. London, UK, IntechOpen.
  • McIntyre R, Mancini D, Eisfeld B, Soczynska J, Grupp L, Konarski J et al. (2006) Calculated bioavailable testosterone levels and depression in middle-aged men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31:1029-1035.
  • Melrose S (2010) Paternal postpartum depression: how can nurses begin to help? Contemp Nurse, 34:199-210.
  • Mezulis A, Hyde S, Clark R (2004) Father involvement moderates the effect of maternal depression during a child’s infancy on child behavior problems in kindergarten. J Fam Psychol, 18:575-588.
  • Morse A, Buist A, Durkin S (2000) First-time parenthood: infIuences on pre-and postnatal adjustment in fathers and mothers. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol, 21:109-120.
  • Naber F, van IJzendoorn M, Deschamps P, van Engeland H, Bakermans-Kranenburg M (2010) Intranasal oxytocin increases fathers’ observed responsiveness during play with their children: a double-blind within-subject experiment. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35:1583-1586.
  • Nath S, Psychogiou L, Kuyken W, Ford T, Ryan E, Russell G (2016) The prevalence of depressive symptoms among fathers and associated risk factors during the first seven years of their child’s life: findings from the millennium cohort study. BMC Public Health, 16:509.
  • Nishimura A, Ohashi K (2010) Risk factors of paternal depression in the early postnatal period in Japan. Nurs Health Sci, 15:1-8.
  • Papp L, Goeke-Morey M, Cummings M (2007) Linkages between spouses’ psychological distress and marital conflict in the home. J Fam Psychol, 21:533-537.
  • Paulson J, Keefe H, Leiferman J (2009) Early parental depression and child language development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 50:254-262.
  • Paulson J, Bazemore S, Goodman J, Leiferman J (2016) The course and interrelationship of maternal and paternal perinatal depression. Arch Womens Ment Health, 19:655-663.
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Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Psychology
Journal Section Review
Authors

Özge Demirci 0000-0003-4579-6092

Emine Inan 0000-0002-3531-4697

Publication Date September 30, 2023
Acceptance Date December 8, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2023 Volume: 15 Issue: 3

Cite

AMA Demirci Ö, Inan E. Postpartum Paternal Depression: Its Impact on Family and Child Development. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry. September 2023;15(3):498-507. doi:10.18863/pgy.1153712

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