Tartışmalar ve Gerçeklik Arasında Koruma Sorumluluğunun Hukukî Kapsamı

Abstract

Toplulukları soykırım, etnik temizlik ve insanlığa karşı suçlar gibi kitlesel zulümlerden korumayı amaçlayan koruma sorumluluğu (R2P), Birleşmiş Milletler tarafından açıklanışından beri tartışmalara yol açmıştır. İnsani müdahale hakkı olarak bilinen kendi selefi gibi, bu yeni norm da doktrin ve siyasi -diplomatik tartışmaların dışında kalamamıştır. Burada sorun R2P’nin insanları korumayı amaçlayan gerçek bir norm mu, yoksa Batı emperyalizmine hizmet eden politik bir doktrin mi olduğudur. Bazı devletler ve akademisyenler R2P’yi bir hukuk normu olarak görürken, bazıları onu gizli bir ajandası olan politik bir doktrin olarak düşünmektedir. Bu makalede, ortak bir kanaat tespit etmek üzere, ilkenin lehinde ve aleyhinde olanların argümanlarının değişik yönlerini tartışılmaktadır. Burada başlangıçtaki varsayımımız R2P’nin, uygulanışı bu yükümden sorumlu olanın menfaatlerine ve güçler dengesine tabi olan özerk bir norm olduğudur. Hukuki metinlerin, yargı kararlarının, resmi belgelerin ve akademik çalışmaların belgesel bir analizi kullanılarak, bu makalede R2P’nin mevcut birkaç ahdî ve uluslararası teamülî normu bir araya toplayan göreceli olarak yerleşik hâle gelmiş özerk bir norm olduğunun altı çizilmektedir. Aynı zamanda R2P’nin uygulanmasının siyasî irade, devlet menfaatleri ve güçler dengesine tabi olduğu da gösterilmektedir. Bunun açıklığa kavuşturulması R2P’nin etkinliğine katkıda bulunacak ve bununla yükümlü olan aktörlerin insanları kitlesel zulümlerden koruyamamaları hâlinde sorumlu tutulmalarına yol açacaktır.

Keywords

• Küresel siyaset
• güç dengesi
• koruma sorumluluğu
• devlet mantığı
• R2P’i destekleyenler
• R2P’ye şüpheyle yaklaşanlar
• R2P eleştirisi

The Legal Scope of the Responsibility to Protect, Between Controversies and Reality

Abstract

Since its establishment by the United Nations, the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity known as mass atrocities (R2P) has given rise to controversies. This emerging norm did not escape doctrinal and politico-diplomatic controversies like its predecessor known as the right of intervention. The question is whether R2P is a real legal norm aimed at protecting people or a political doctrine serving Western imperialism. Some states and scholars perceive R2P as a legal norm while others see it as a political doctrine with a hidden agenda. This article discusses the relevance of the arguments of both its proponents and opponents to identify a common understanding. Our starting assumption is that R2P is an autonomous norm whose application is subject to its debtors’ interests and power balance. Using a documentary analysis of legal instruments, judicial proceedings, official documents, and scholarly works, this research paper highlights that R2P is a relatively well-established autonomous norm gathering several existing conventional and international customary norms. It demonstrates that R2P implementation remains subject to political will, state interests, and balance of power. This clarification should contribute to R2P effectiveness and pave the way for the liability of responsible actors for failure to protect populations from mass atrocities.

Keywords

• Global politics
• balance of power
• responsibility to protect
• R2P boosters
• R2P sceptics
• R2P criticism
• state logic

References

1. Books, Articles and Thesis google scholar
2. Aggar S, ‘La responsabilité de protéger : un nouveau concept ?’ (Thèse de doctorat, Université de Bordeaux 2016). google scholar
3. Ahouansou W, ‘Eradiquer la menace terroriste au Nigéria par la coopération régionale: nécessité et moyens d’actions’ Policy Brief 12 L’Afrique des idées 1 -13. google scholar
4. Aluoch R, ‘The Dilemma of Responsibility to Protect in the Great Lakes Region’ (2018) 4(1) Journal of African Conflicts and Peace Studies 1 - 18. google scholar
5. Bellamy A J, Luck E C, The Responsibility to Protect: From Promise to Practice (Polity Press 2018). google scholar
6. Bettati M, ‘Du Droit d’ingérence à La Responsabilité de Protéger’ (2007) 3 Outre-Terre 381 - 389 accessed 26 April 2022. google scholar
7. Brendan Simms & DJB Trim (ed), Humanitarian Intervention: A History’ accessed 25 January 2024. google scholar
8. Cabanis A et al., La responsabilité de protéger : une perspective francophone (Idea Design and Print 2010). google scholar

9. Crouzatier JM, ‘Le Principe de la responsabilité de protéger : avancé de la solidarité internationale ou ultime avatar de l’impérialisme’, (2008) 2 Revue ASPECTS 13. google scholar
10. Cunliffe P, ‘The Doctrine of the Responsibility to Protect as a Practice of Political Exceptionalism’ (2017) 23 European Journal of International Relations 466- 486 accessed 26 April 2022. google scholar
11. David E, Principes de droit des conflits armés (4è édition, Bruylant 2008). google scholar
12. De Chazournes L B, Condorelli L, ‘De la responsabilité de protéger, ou d'une nouvelle parure pour une notion déjà bien établie’ (2006) 110 (1) Revue générale de droit international public 11 - 18. google scholar
13. Durham H, Wynn-Pope P, ‘The relationship between international humanitarian law and responsibility to protect: From Solferino to Srebrenica’ in Popovski V, Francis A, Sampford C (ed), Norms of protection: responsibility to protect, protection of civilians and their interaction (UN University Press, 2012). google scholar
14. Cinq-Mars E ‘Too Little, Too Late: Failing to Prevent Atrocities in the Central African Republic’ (2015) 7 Global Centre for Responsibility to Protect Occasional Paper Series 1-22. google scholar
15. Gallagher A, Ralph J, ‘The Responsibility to Protect at Ten’ (2015) 7 Global Responsibility to Protect 239-253 accessed 26 April 2024. google scholar
16. Gareth E, ‘R2P: The Dream and the Reality, Speech Originally Delivered on 26 November 2020 at the European Centre for the Responsi- bility to Protect’s Annual Lecture, at Leeds University’ (Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, 26 November 2020) www.globalr2p.org/publications/r2p-the-dream-and-the-reality/> accessed 9 August 2023. google scholar
17. Gaudino JJ, Anthropologie sur les droits de l’homme (Librio 1998). google scholar
18. Gueldich H, ‘Droit d’ingérence et interventions humanitaires : état de la pratique et du droit international’ (Thèse de doctorat, Univer- sité de Carthage 2008) accessed 30 January 2024. google scholar
19. Hajjami N, ‘La Responsabilité de protéger’ (Thèse de doctorat, Université d’Angers et Université Libre de Bruxelles 2012). google scholar
20. Illingworth R, ‘Responsible Veto Restraint: A Transitional Cosmopolitan Reform Measure for the Responsibility to Protect’ (2020) 12 Global Responsibility to Protect 385- 414. google scholar
21. Jeangene Vilmer J-B, ‘Histoire, droit, éthique et politique de l’intervention militaire justifiée par des raisons humanitaires’ (Thèse de doctorat, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) et Université de Montréal 2009) . google scholar
22. Jeangene Vilmer J-B, La responsabilité de protéger (PUF 2015). google scholar
23. Kabaka PI, Amouzou V, La souveraineté des Etats aux prises du droit d'ingérence internationale. Etude de la portée de la responsabilité de protéger en droit international des droits de l'homme (2020) < https://hal.science/hal- 02508823v1/document > accessed 29 April 2024 google scholar
24. Kimani M, ‘Pursuit of Justice or Western Plot? International Indictments Stir Angry Debate in Africa’ (October 2009) Africa Renewal 12- 15. google scholar
25. Kiyani G A, ‘The Antinomies of Legitimacy : On the ( Im ) Possibility of a Legitimate International Criminal Court’(2015) 8(1-2) African Journal of Legal Studies 1- 32. google scholar
26. Kurtz G, Rotmann P, ‘The Evolution of Norms of Protection: Major Powers Debate the Responsibility to Protect’ (2006) 30(1) Global Security 3- 20. google scholar
27. Labuda I P, “The International Criminal Court and Perceptions of Sovereignty, Colonialism and Pan-African Solidarity” (2014) 20 (1) African Ybk Intl L online 289- 321. google scholar
28. Lwabukuna O, ‘The Responsibility to Protect Internally Displaced Persons in Africa’ (2021) 65 Journal of African Law 73- 100. google scholar
29. Manirakiza P, ‘A Twail Perspective on the African Union’s Project to Withdraw from the International Criminal Court’ (2019) 23 (1) African Ybk Intl L Online 391- 424. google scholar
30. Mbirigi F, ‘Les Nations Unies face à la responsabilité de protéger en Afrique’ (Centre de Recherche et de Perfectionnement, 2021). google scholar
31. Morada NM, ‘Asean and the Rakhine Crisis: Balancing Non-Interference, Accountability, and Strategic Interests in Responding to Atroc-ities in Myanmar’ (2021) 13 Global Responsibility to Protect 131- 157. google scholar
32. Olugbuo C B, ‘The African Union, the United Nations Security Council and the Politicisation of International Justice in Africa’ (2014) 7(3) African Journal of Legal Studies 351- 379. google scholar
33. Orakhelashvili A, The Interpretation of Acts and Rules in Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2008). google scholar
34. Özden M, Astruc M, ‘Responsabilité de protéger : progrès ou recul du droit international public ?’ (2013) 12 Cahier critique 1- 27. google scholar
35. Popovski V, Francis A, Sampford C (ed), Norms of protection: responsibility to protect, protection of civilians and their interaction (UN University Press, 2012) accessed 29 April 2024. google scholar
36. Sandholtz W, ‘Norm Contestation, Robustness, and Replacement’ (2019) 4(1) Journal of Global Security Studies 139- 146. google scholar
37. Salmon J, Droit des gens, mis à jour par Eric David (T1, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 2003-2004). google scholar
38. Sarkin J, ‘The Role of the United Nations, the African Union and Africa’s Sub-Regional Organizations in Dealing with Africa’ s Human Rights Problems: Connecting Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect’ (2009) 53 (1) Journal of African Law 1- 33. google scholar
39. Shilaho K W, ‘The International Criminal Court and the African Union: Is the ICC a Bulwark against Impunity or an Imperial Trojan Horse?’ (2018) 18 African Journal on Conflict Resolution 119-146 accessed 5 June 2022. google scholar
40. Šimonović I, ‘Why “Never Again” and R2P Did Not Work in Myanmar’ (2021) 13 Global Responsibility to Protect 387- 391. google scholar
41. Stefan CG, Newman E, ‘Europe’s Progress and the Road Ahead at R2P’s 15th Anniversary’ (2020) 12 Global Responsibility to Protect 369- 371. google scholar
42. Terpan F, ‘L’Union Européenne et la responsabilité de protéger : les raisons d’un engagement modéré’ (2017) XVII Annuaire Français des Relations Internationales 475- 488. google scholar
43. Tomuschat C, ‘Obligations arising for States without or against their will’ (1993) 241(IV), Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law. google scholar
44. Traub J, ‘Unwilling and Unable: The Failed Response to the Atrocities in Darfur’ (2010) 1, Occasional Paper Series 1- 29. google scholar
45. Welsh M J, ‘Norm Robustness and the Responsibility to Protect’ (2019) 4 (1) Journal of Global Security Studies 53-72. google scholar
46. Welsh M J, ‘The Responsibility to Protect after Libya & Syria’ (2016) 145 (4) American Academy of Arts and Sciences 75- 87. google scholar
47. Winston C, ‘Norm Structure, Diffusion and Evolution: a Conceptual Approach’ (2017) 24 (3) European Journal of International Relations 638 - 661. google scholar
48. Zähringer N, ‘Taking Stock of Theories around Norm Contestation: A Conceptual Re-examining of the Evolution of the Responsibility to Protect’ (2021) 64 (1) Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 1-18. google scholar
49. Zähringer N, Brosig M, ‘Organised Hypocrisy in the African Union: The Responsibility to Protect as a Contested Norm’ (2020) 27 (1) South African Journal of International Affairs 1 - 23. google scholar
50. International Legal instruments google scholar
51. Pact on Security, Stability, and Development in the Great Lakes Region (adopted 15 December 2006, entered into force 21 June 2008). google scholar
52. United Nations Charter (adopted 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945) XV UNCIO 335, amendments in 557 UNTS 143, 638 UNTS 308 and 892 UNTS 119. google scholar
53. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 19 December 1966entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171. google scholar
54. International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (adopted 20 December 2006, entered into force 23 December 2010) 2716 UNTS 3. google scholar
55. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85. google scholar
56. Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3. google scholar
57. Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force on 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 31. google scholar
58. Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 85. google scholar
59. Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 135. google scholar
60. Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 287. google scholar
61. Constitutive Act of African Union (adopted 11 July 2000, entered into force 26 May 2001) 2158 UNTS 3. google scholar
62. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (adopted 9 December 1948, entered into force 12 January 1951) 78 UNTS 277. google scholar
63. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (adopted 30 November 1973, entered into force 18 July 1976) 1015 UNTS 243. google scholar
64. Convention on the Non-applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (adopted 26 November 1968, entered into force 11 November 1970) 754 UNTS 73. google scholar
65. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 07 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 3. google scholar
66. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 07 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 609. google scholar
67. Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (adopted 27 June 2014, not yet in force). google scholar
68. National legislations google scholar
69. Loi n°1/27 du 27 décembre 2017 portant révision du code pénal (du Burundi). google scholar
70. Loi nº68/2018 du 30/08/2018 déterminant les infractions et les peines en général telle que modifiée à ce jour (au Rwanda). google scholar
71. Official documents google scholar
72. 2005 World Summit Outcome, UNGA RES 60/1 (16 September 2005). google scholar
73. ACHPR Resolution (2007) Doc. ACHPR/Res.117 (XXXXII) 07. google scholar
74. African Union, The Ezulwini Consensus, AU Doc Ext/EX.CL/2 (VII), 7-8 March 2005, . google scholar
75. African Union, Decision Assembly/AU/Dec. 3 (VII) on Hissène Habré Trial, 2 July 2006. google scholar
76. African Union Decision, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.199(XI) (2008). google scholar
77. -—————————-, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec. 221 (XII) (2009). google scholar
78. -—————————-, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.245(XIII)Rev.1 (2009). google scholar
79. -—————————-, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.213 (XII) (2009). google scholar
80. -—————————-, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.243(XIII) Rev.1 (2009). google scholar
81. -—————————, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.292(XV) (2010). google scholar
82. -—————————, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec. 366(XVII) (2011). google scholar
83. -—————————–, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec. 397(XVIII) (2012). google scholar
84. -——————————, AU Doc. Ext/Assembly/AU/Dec.1, (2013). google scholar
85. -——————————, AU Doc. Assembly/AU/Dec.622(XXVIII) (2017). google scholar
86. -——————————, and AU Doc. PSC/PR/COMM.(DXIX) (2015). google scholar
87. Déclaration de Ouagadougou, 27 Novembre 2004, . google scholar
88. GCR2P ‘R2P References in United Nations General Assembly Resolutions as Updated on 18 April 2022’ accessed 10 July 2022. google scholar
89. GCR2P ‘R2P References in United Nations Human Rights Council Resolutions as Updated on 8 July 2022’ accessed 10 July 2022. google scholar
90. GCR2P ‘R2P References in United Nations Security Council Resolutions and Presidential Statements updated on 8 April 2021’ < https:// www.globalr2p.org/resources/un-security-council-resolutions-and-presidential-statements-referencing-r2p/> accessed 11 July 2021. google scholar
91. GCR2P ‘List of Supporters of the Code of Conduct regarding Security Council action against genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes as Updated on 8 June 2022’ accessed 9 August 2022. google scholar
92. GCR2P ‘List of Supporters of the Political Declaration on Suspension of Veto as Updated on 13 July 2022 < https://www.globalr2p.org/ resources/list-of-supporters-of-the-political-declaration-on-suspension-of-veto/ > accessed 12 March 2025. google scholar
93. GCR2P, ‘Summary of the Informal Interactive Dialogue of the UN General Assembly on the Responsibility to Protect’ 6 September 2017 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
94. High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, UN Doc. A/59/565, 2 De-cember 2004 accessed 26 April 2024. google scholar
95. ICISS, The Responsibility to Protect (International Development Research Centre 2001). google scholar
96. ICRC ‘State Parties to the Following International Humanitarian Law and Other Related Treaties as of 27-May-2021’ 5 June 2021 accessed 5 June 2021. google scholar
97. Nations Unies, Dans une liberté plus grande : développement, sécurité et respect des droits de l’homme pour tous, Doc. A/59/2005, 24 Mars 2005 accessed 13 July 2023. google scholar
98. Union Africaine ‘Agenda 2063 : l’Afrique que nous voulons’ (avril 2015). google scholar
99. United Nations Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/RES/70/1 (2015). google scholar
100. UNGA Verbatim Record (16 September 2019) UN Doc. A/73/PV.107. google scholar
101. UNGA Verbatim Record (14 September 2009) UN Doc. A/63/PV.105. google scholar
102. UNGA Verbatim Record (28 June 2019) UN Doc. A/73/PV.95. google scholar
103. UNGA Verbatim Record (18 September 2020) UN Doc. A/75/PV.2. google scholar
104. UNGA Verbatim Record (18 May 2021) UN Doc. A/75/PV.66. google scholar
105. UNSC Verbatim Record (31 August 2006) UN Doc. S/PV.5519. google scholar
106. UNSC Verbatim Record (17 March 2011) UN Doc. S/PV.6498. google scholar
107. UNSC Verbatim Record (29 July 2016) UN Doc. S/PV.7752. google scholar
108. UN Secretary-General ‘Implementing the responsibility to protect: accountability for prevention’ (2017) UN Doc. A/71/1016–S/2017/556. google scholar
109. UN Secretary-General ‘Responsibility to Protect: State Responsibility and Prevention’ (2013) UN Doc. A/67/929– S/2013/399. google scholar
110. UN Secretary-General ‘Responsibility to Protect: Timely and Decisive Response’ (2012) UN Doc. A/66/874–S/2012/578. google scholar
111. UN Secretary-General ‘The Role of Regional and Subregional Arrangements in Implementing the Responsibility to Protect’ (2011) UN Doc. A/65/877- S/2011/393. google scholar
112. UN Secretary-General, ‘Implementing the Responsibility to Protect’ (2009) UN Doc. A/63/677. google scholar
113. International Cases and proceedings google scholar
114. Decision assigning the situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo to Pre-Trial Chamber I, ICC-01/04, 5 July 2004. google scholar
115. Decision assigning the Situation in the Central African Republic II to Pre-Trial Chamber II, ICC-01/14, 18 June 2014. google scholar
116. Case Information Sheet on the Situation in Côte d’Ivoire: The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé, ICC-PIDS-CIS- CIV-04-05/20_Eng, July 2021. google scholar
117. Case Information Sheet on the Situation in the Republic of Mali: The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-PIDS-CIS- MAL-01-09/22_Eng, January 2022. google scholar
118. Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures: Order) [2009] ICJ Rep 139. google scholar
119. Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Judgment) [2012] ICJ Rep 144. google scholar
120. Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar) (Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures: Order) [2020] ICJ Rep 178. google scholar
121. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Ukraine v Russian Federation) (Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures: Order) [2022] ICJ Rep 182. google scholar
122. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (South Africa v Israel) (Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures: Order) [2024] ICJ Rep 192. google scholar
123. Official statements google scholar
124. ‘Statement by Belgium at the 2017 UN General Assembly informal interactive dialogue on the Responsibility to Protect’, 6 September 2017 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
125. ‘Statement by the United Kingdom at the 2017 UN General Assembly informal interactive dialogue on the Responsibility to Protect’, 6 September 2017 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
126. ‘Statement Delivered by the Delegation of Nigeria to the United Nations, at the United Nations General Assembly Thematic Panel Discussion on From Commitment to Implementation: Ten Years of the Responsibility to Protect’, 26 Febru- ary 2016 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
127. ‘Statement Delivered by the Delegation of Burundi to the United Nations, at the United Nations General Assembly Thematic Panel Discussion on From Commitment to Implementation: Ten Years of the Responsibility to Protect’, 25 February 2016 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
128. ‘China’s Statement at the 2016 UN General Assembly Thematic Panel Discussion, “From Commitment to Implementation: Ten Years of Responsibility to Protect”, [Transcribed], 26 February 2022, as published by GCR2P. google scholar
129. ‘Statement delivered on behalf of the Group of Friends on the Responsibility to Protect’, 26 February 2016 accessed 8 July 2022. google scholar
130. ‘Statement on behalf of Group of Friends for the Responsibility to Protect at the 17 May 2021 Formal Debate of the General Assembly on the Responsibility to Protect and the Prevention of Genocide, war crimes, Ethnic Cleansing and Crime against Humanity’, 17 May 2021 < https://www.globalr2p.org/resources/statement-delivered-on-behalf-of-members-of-the-group-of-friends-of-r2 p-at-the-2021-un-general-assembly-debate-on-r2p/> accessed 10 July 2022. google scholar
131. ‘Statement by the European Union at the UN General Assembly Thematic Panel Discussion, From Commitment to Implemen- tation: Ten Years of the Responsibility to Protect’, 26 February 2016 accessed 20 July 2022. google scholar
132. ‘Statement by Tanzania at the UN General Assembly Thematic Panel Discussion, From Commitment to Implementa- tion: Ten Years of the Responsibility to Protect’, 26 February 2016 accessed 25 July 2022. google scholar
133. ‘Statement on behalf of the Steering Group of the Global Network of R2P Focal Points at the UN Human Rights Council inter-sessional panel on the responsibility to protect’ 11 May 2021 accessed 15 September 2021. google scholar