Mikrobiyotaya Etki Eden Etmenler

Yıl 2023, , 166 - 175, 31.12.2023

Aleyna Emir , Tuğba Tatar

https://doi.org/10.59778/sbfdergisi.1337716

Öz

Mikrobiyota birçok mikroorganizmayı içerisinde barındıran, immünolojik, hormonal ve metabolik açıdan önemi son dönemlerde daha fazla anlaşılan bir yapıdır. Mikrobiyota immünolojik sisteminin güçlendirilmesi, bazı vitaminlerin sentezlenmesi, sindirim ve emilim faaliyetlerinin gerçekleştirilmesi, bağırsak bütünlüğünün korunması, inflamasyonun önlenmesi, nörolojik faaliyetler, sağlıklı vücut ağırlığına kavuşulması gibi çok farklı metabolik işlevlerin gerçekleşmesinde önemli roller üstlenmektedir. Mikrobiyotanın oluşumunu ve gelişimini etkileyen birçok faktör bulunmaktadır. Bu derlemede bu faktörlerden bazılarına değinilmiştir. Probiyotikler ve prebiyotikler faydalı mikrobiyal yükü artırarak mikrobiyotanın düzenlenmesinde fayda sağlar. Genel itibariyle bitkisel kaynaklı besinlerde bulunan polifenoller mikrobiyotayı olumlu yönde etkilemektedir. Mikrobiyota ile polifenoller arasında karşılıklı bir ilişki bulunmaktadır. Mikrobiyota polifenollerin biyoyararlılığını ve biyolojik aktivitesini artırabilirken, polifenollerin de mikrobiyotanın faydalı mikrobiyal çeşitliliğini artırabildiği gösterilmiştir. Mikrobiyota ilaçların emilim, metabolizma, toksisite gibi mekanizmalarını etkileyerek kimyasal değişikliklere uğraması ve metabolize edilmesinde önemli roller üstlenmektedir. Bununla birlikte antibiyotikler başta olmak üzere bazı ilaçlar mikrobiyom bileşimi, metabolizması ve konak etkileşimini değiştirebilmektedir. Emülgatörler veya yapay tatlandırıcılar gibi gıda katkı maddeleri mikrobiyota bileşimini etkileyebilmektedir. Emülgatörlerin mikrobiyota disbiyozu ile ilişkili hastalıkları artırdığı gösterilmiştir. Yapay tatlandırıcıların da mikrobiyota üzerine olumsuz etkileri nedeniyle obezite ve glukoz intoleransı eğilimini artırdığı düşünülmektedir. Mikrobiyota leptin ekspresyonu üzerinde etkili olabilmekte ve vücut ağırlığı kazanımında rol oynayabilmektedir. Sonuç olarak mikrobiyotanın bileşimi ve mikrobiyal yükün yoğunluğu insan sağlığı üzerinde birçok olumlu veya olumsuz etki oluşturabilmektedir. Önemi gün geçtikçe daha fazla anlaşılan mikrobiyotaya etki eden etmenlerin daha fazla anlaşılması ve altta yatan mekanizmaların bilinmesi sağlıklı bir mikrobiyota oluşumu için önem arz etmektedir. Sağlıklı bir mikrobiyota oluşturmak obezite, inflamasyon, diyabet gibi birçok hastalığın önlenmesinde ve bireylerin genel sağlığının iyileşmesinde aktif olarak rol oynamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Mikrobiyota, Pre-probiyotikler, Polifenoller, Gıda katkı maddeleri, Leptin

The Factors Affecting Microbiota

Öz

Microbiota is a structure that contains many microorganisms, and its importance in immunological, hormonal, and metabolic terms has been understood more recently. Microbiota plays an essential role in many different metabolic functions, such as strengthening the immunological system, synthesizing some vitamins, digestive and absorption activities, protecting the integrity of the intestine, preventing inflammation, neurological activities, and attaining healthy body weight. Many factors affect the formation and development of microbiota. In this review, some of these factors are mentioned. Probiotics and prebiotics increase the beneficial microbial load and contribute to regulating the microbiota. In general, polyphenols found in plant-based foods positively affect the microbiota. There is a reciprocal relationship between microbiota and polyphenols. It has been shown that while the microbiota can increase the bioavailability and biological activity of polyphenols, polyphenols can increase the beneficial microbial diversity of the microbiota. Microbiota plays an important role in drug chemical changes and metabolism by influencing mechanisms such as absorption, metabolism, and toxicity. However, some medications, especially antibiotics, can change the microbiome composition, metabolism, and host interaction. Food additives such as emulsifiers or artificial sweeteners can affect the composition of the microbiota. Emulsifiers have been shown to increase diseases associated with microbiota dysbiosis. Artificial sweeteners are also thought to increase the tendency of obesity and glucose intolerance due to their harmful effects on the microbiota. Microbiota can affect leptin expression and play a role in body weight gain. As a result, the composition of the microbiota and the density of the microbial load can have many positive or negative effects on human health. It is crucial for the formation of a healthy microbiota to understand better the factors affecting the microbiota, the importance of which is being understood more and more, and to know the underlying mechanisms. Creating a healthy microbiota plays an active role in the prevention of many diseases, such as obesity, inflammation, and diabetes, and in improving the general health of individuals.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Microbiota, Pre-probiotics, Polyphenols, Food additives, Leptin

Kaynakça

• Becattini, S., Taur, Y., & Pamer, E. G. (2016). Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease. Trends in molecular medicine, 22(6), 458–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2016.04.003
• Cardona, F., Andrés-Lacueva, C., Tulipani, S., Tinahones, F. J., & Queipo-Ortuño, M. I. (2013). Benefits of polyphenols on gut microbiota and implications in human health. The Journal of nutritional biochemistry, 24(8), 1415–1422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.05.001
• Chassaing, B., Compher, C., Bonhomme, B., Liu, Q., Tian, Y., Walters, W., et al. (2022). Randomized Controlled-Feeding Study of Dietary Emulsifier Carboxymethylcellulose Reveals Detrimental Impacts on the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome. Gastroenterology, 162(3), 743–756. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2021.11.006
• Chassaing, B., Van de Wiele, T., De Bodt, J., Marzorati, M., & Gewirtz, A. T. (2017). Dietary emulsifiers directly alter human microbiota composition and gene expression ex vivo potentiating intestinal inflammation. Gut, 66(8), 1414-1427.
• Chen, Y., Zhou, J., & Wang, L. (2021). Role and Mechanism of Gut Microbiota in Human Disease. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 11, 625913. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2021.625913
• Chi, L., Bian, X., Gao, B., Tu, P., Lai, Y., Ru, H., & Lu, K. (2018). Effects of the artificial sweetener neotame on the gut microbiome and fecal metabolites in mice. Molecules, 23(2), 367.
• Food and Drug Administration (2023). Aspartame and Other Sweeteners in Food, Erişim adresi: https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/aspartame-and-other-sweeteners-food (Erişim tarihi: 13.06.2023)
• Jardon, K. M., Canfora, E. E., Goossens, G. H., & Blaak, E. E. (2022). Dietary macronutrients and the gut microbiome: a precision nutrition approach to improve cardiometabolic health. Gut, 71(6), 1214–1226. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323715
• Jernberg, C., Löfmark, S., Edlund, C., & Jansson, J. K. (2007). Long-term ecological impacts of antibiotic administration on the human intestinal microbiota. The ISME journal, 1(1), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2007.3
• Jonsson, A. L., and Bäckhed, F. (2017). Role of gut microbiota in atherosclerosis. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 14 (2), 79–87. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2016.183
• Kılıç, Ü., & Altındiş, M. (2017). Antibiyotik kullanımı ve mikrobiyota. Journal of Biotechnology and Strategic Health Research, 1, 39-43.
• Kim, M. H., Yun, K. E., Kim, J., Park, E., Chang, Y., Ryu, S., et al. (2020). Gut microbiota and metabolic health among overweight and obese individuals. Scientific reports, 10(1), 19417. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76474-8
• Kozarov, E. V., Dorn, B. R., Shelburne, C. E., Dunn, W. A. Jr., and Progulske-Fox, A. (2005). Human atherosclerotic plaque contains viable invasive Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25 (3), e17–e18. doi: 10.1161/ 01.ATV.0000155018.67835.1a
• Lange, K., Buerger, M., Stallmach, A., & Bruns, T. (2016). Effects of Antibiotics on Gut Microbiota. Digestive diseases (Basel, Switzerland), 34(3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1159/000443360
• Li, H. Y., Zhou, D. D., Gan, R. Y., Huang, S. Y., Zhao, C. N., Shang, A., et al. (2021). Effects and Mechanisms of Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics on Metabolic Diseases Targeting Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 13(9), 3211. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093211
• Li, M., Zheng, Y., Zhao, J., Liu, M., Shu, X., Li, Q., Wang, et al. (2022). Polyphenol Mechanisms against Gastric Cancer and Their Interactions with Gut Microbiota: A Review. Current oncology (Toronto, Ont.), 29(8), 5247–5261. https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol29080417
• Li, X., Liu, L., Cao, Z., Li, W., Li, H., Lu, C., et al. (2020). Gut microbiota as an "invisible organ" that modulates the function of drugs. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie, 121, 109653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109653
• Liu, C., Zhan, S., Tian, Z., Li, N., Li, T., Wu, D., et al. (2022). Food Additives Associated with Gut Microbiota Alterations in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Friends or Enemies?. Nutrients, 14(15), 3049. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14153049
• Lloyd-Price, J., Abu-Ali, G., & Huttenhower, C. (2016). The healthy human microbiome. Genome medicine, 8(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13073-016-0307-y
• Mitra, S., Drautz-Moses, D. I., Alhede, M., Maw, M. T., Liu, Y., Purbojati, R. W., et al. (2015). In silico analyses of metagenomes from human atherosclerotic plaque samples. Microbiome 3, 38–38. doi: 10.1186/s40168-015-0100-y
• Mörkl, S., Butler, M. I., Holl, A., Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2020). Probiotics and the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis: Focus on Psychiatry. Current nutrition reports, 9(3), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-020-00313-5
• Mukherjee, S., Joardar, N., Sengupta, S., & Sinha Babu, S. P. (2018). Gut microbes as future therapeutics in treating inflammatory and infectious diseases: Lessons from recent findings. The Journal of nutritional biochemistry, 61, 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.07.010
• Naimi, S., Viennois, E., Gewirtz, A. T., & Chassaing, B. (2021). Direct impact of commonly used dietary emulsifiers on human gut microbiota. Microbiome, 9(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-020-00996-6
• Obradovic, M., Sudar-Milovanovic, E., Soskic, S., Essack, M., Arya, S., Stewart, A. J., et al. (2021). Leptin and Obesity: Role and Clinical Implication. Frontiers in endocrinology, 12, 585887. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.585887 Özsoy, S. (2019). Polifenoller, Mikrobiyota ve Diyabet. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi, 47, 102-109.
• Palmnäs, M. S., Cowan, T. E., Bomhof, M. R., Su, J., Reimer, R. A., Vogel, H. J., ... & Shearer, J. (2014). Low-dose aspartame consumption differentially affects gut microbiota-host metabolic interactions in the diet-induced obese rat. PloS one, 9(10), e109841.
• Pascale, A., Marchesi, N., Govoni, S., Coppola, A., & Gazzaruso, C. (2019). The role of gut microbiota in obesity, diabetes mellitus, and effect of metformin: new insights into old diseases. Current opinion in pharmacology, 49, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coph.2019.03.011
• Ramirez, J., Guarner, F., Bustos Fernandez, L., Maruy, A., Sdepanian, V. L., & Cohen, H. (2020). Antibiotics as Major Disruptors of Gut Microbiota. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 10, 572912. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.572912
• Rinninella, E., Cintoni, M., Raoul, P., Gasbarrini, A., & Mele, M. C. (2020). Food Additives, Gut Microbiota, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Hidden Track. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(23), 8816. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238816
• Ruiz, P. A., Morón, B., Becker, H. M., Lang, S., Atrott, K., Spalinger, M. R., ... & Rogler, G. (2017). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles exacerbate DSS-induced colitis: role of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Gut, 66(7), 1216-1224.
• Schirmer, M., Smeekens, S. P., Vlamakis, H., Jaeger, M., Oosting, M., Franzosa, E. A., et al. (2016). Linking the Human Gut Microbiome to Inflammatory Cytokine Production Capacity. Cell, 167(4), 1125–1136.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.020
• Sender, R., Fuchs, S., & Milo, R. (2016). Revised Estimates for the Number of Human and Bacteria Cells in the Body. PLoS biology, 14(8), e1002533. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533
• Singh, R. K., Chang, H. W., Yan, D., Lee, K. M., Ucmak, D., Wong, K., et al. (2017). Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health. Journal of translational medicine, 15(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-017-1175-y
• Suez, J., Korem, T., Zeevi, D., Zilberman-Schapira, G., Thaiss, C. A., Maza, O., et al. (2014). Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature, 514(7521), 181–186. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13793
• Swidsinski, A., Ung, V., Sydora, B. C., Loening-Baucke, V., Doerffel, Y., Verstraelen, H., & Fedorak, R. N. (2009). Bacterial overgrowth and inflammation of small intestine after carboxymethylcellulose ingestion in genetically susceptible mice. Inflammatory bowel diseases, 15(3), 359-364.
• Taşdemir, A. (2017). Probiyotikler, prebiyotikler, sinbiyotikler. Sağlık Akademisi Kastamonu, 2(1), 71-88.
• Taşkırmaz, R. N., Çakıroğlu, F. P., Meseri, R., & Küçükerdönmez, Ö. (2017). Süper organ mikrobiyota ve obezite. İzmir Kâtip Çelebi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(1), 45-49.
• Türk Gıda Kodeksi Gıda Katkı Maddeleri Yönetmeliği (2013), Erişim adresi: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2013/06/20130630-4.htm (Erişim tarihi: 03.05.2023)
• Türk Gıda Kodeksi Renklendiriciler ve Tatlandırıcılar Dışındaki Gıda Katkı Maddeleri Tebliği (2008), Erişim adresi: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2008/05/20080522-7.htm (Erişim tarihi: 03.05.2023)
• Valdes, A. M., Walter, J., Segal, E., & Spector, T. D. (2018). Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 361, k2179. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2179
• Vallianou, N. G., Stratigou, T., & Tsagarakis, S. (2019). Metformin and gut microbiota: their interactions and their impact on diabetes. Hormones (Athens, Greece), 18(2), 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42000-019-00093-w
• Varım, P., Vatan, M. B., & Varım, C. (2017). Kardiyovasküler hastalıklar ve mikrobiyota. Journal of Biotechnology and Strategic Health Research, 1, 141-147.S
• Wang, X., Zhang, P., & Zhang, X. (2021). Probiotics Regulate Gut Microbiota: An Effective Method to Improve Immunity. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 26(19), 6076. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26196076
• Wang, R., Tang, R., Li, B., Ma, X., Schnabl, B., & Tilg, H. (2021). Gut microbiome, liver immunology, and liver diseases. Cellular & molecular immunology, 18(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-020-00592-6
• Weersma, R. K., Zhernakova, A., & Fu, J. (2020). Interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome. Gut, 69(8), 1510–1519. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2019-320204
• Yan, Q., Gu, Y., Li, X., Yang, W., Jia, L., Chen, C., et al. (2017). Alterations of the Gut Microbiome in Hypertension. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol. 7:381:381. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00381
• Yang, T., Santisteban, M. M., Rodriguez, V., Li, E., Ahmari, N., Carvajal, J. M., et al. (2015). Gut dysbiosis is linked to hypertension. Hypertension (Dallas Tex. 1979) 65 (6), 1331–1340. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA. 115.05315
• Yao, H., Fan, C., Fan, X., Lu, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, R., et al (2020) Effects of gut microbiota on leptin expressionand body weigh tarelessened by high-fat diet in mice. British Journal of Nutrition. 124(4):396-406.
• Zhang, Q., & Hu, N. (2020). Effects of Metformin on the Gut Microbiota in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes, metabolic syndrome and obesity: targets and therapy, 13, 5003–5014. https://doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S286430
• Zhao, Y., & Jiang, Q. (2021). Roles of the Polyphenol-Gut Microbiota Interaction in Alleviating Colitis and Preventing Colitis-Associated Colorectal Cancer. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 12(2), 546–565. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmaa104