Ülke İmajı Araştırmalarında Ölçek Seçimi ve Kullanımı

Year 2018, , 78 - 91, 30.04.2018

Tolga Şentürk

https://doi.org/10.29249/selcuksbmyd.407367

Cited By: 3

Abstract

Ülke imajı belirli bir ülke hakkındaki tanımlayıcı,
çıkarımsal ve bilgilendirici inançların toplamı olarak tanımlanır (Martin ve
Eroğlu; 1993:193). Tüketicilerin ürün kalitesine yönelik değerlendirmelerini
etkilediği için de uluslararası pazarlama literatüründe çokça çalışılan bir
araştırma alanıdır. Bugüne kadar yapılan çalışmaların sahip olduğu araştırma
tasarımlarının ve kullanılan ölçeklerin ülke imajının boyutları çerçevesinde
çok büyük bir çeşitlilik arz ettiği görülmektedir (örn. Balabanis vd., 1996;
Laroche vd., 2005; Papadopoulos ve Heslop 1993; Roth ve Romeo, 1992). Bu
çeşitlilik içerisinde yaşanan kavramsal karmaşa ve ülke imajı bileşenlerini
ölçen ölçekler çerçevesinde gözlemlenen geçişkenlik, önemli bir sorun olarak
araştırmacıların karşısında durmaktadır (Roth ve Diamantopoulos, 2009). Yapılan
çalışmada öncelikle ülke imajı araştırmalarında ortaya çıkan kavram karmaşasını
giderecek tanımlamalar yapılarak kavramsal çerçeve çizilmeye çalışılmıştır.
Bunun yanında ülke imajı bileşenlerinin ölçümü ile ürün-ülke imajını ölçen
ölçeklerin kullanımı konusunda yapılan hatalar ve bunlara getirilen eleştiriler
derlenmiştir. Araştırmada özellikle genel ülke imajı ile ürün-ülke imajının
birbirinden ayrıştırılarak çerçevesinin tam olarak çizilmesi gerektiği vurgulanmış
ve birincisinin ikincisi üzerinde yaptığı etkiler açıklanmıştır.

Keywords

Ülke imajı, Ülke orijini, Ürün-Ülke İmajı, Uluslararası Pazarlama

Scale Selection and Use in Country Image Research

Abstract

Country image is defined as
the sum of descriptive, inferential and informative beliefs about a particular
country. It is a research field that has been studied extensively in the
international marketing literature because it affects consumers' evaluations of
product quality. It can be seen that the research designs and the scales used
have a great diversity in the dimensions of the country image. The transitivity
observed within the scales measuring the conceptual mess and the components of
the country image existing in this diversity stands in front of researchers as
an important problem. In this study, firstly the conceptual framework was tried
to be drawn with the definitions in order to solve the concept complexity that
emerged in the country image researches. In addition, the mistakes made in the
use of scales measuring the components of country-image and the product-country
image, and the criticisms of them have been compiled. In the research, it is emphasized
that the the conceptual framework should be drawn exactly by seperating the
general country image and the product-country image from each other, and the
effects of the first one on the second one are explained.

Keywords

Country Image, Country Origin, International Marketing

References

• KaynakçaAhmed, Sadrudin A., Alain d’Astous, (1996); “Country of Origin and Brand Effects: A Multi-dimensional and Multi-attribute Study”, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, V.9, No.2, , pp.93-115.
• Ahmed, Zafar U., James P. Johnson, Chew Pei Ling, Tan Wai Fang, Ang Kah Hui, (2002); “Country of Origin and Brand Effects on Consumers’ Evaluations of Cruise Lines”, International Marketing Review, Vol.19, No.3, pp.279- 302.
• Allred, Anthony T., (1997), “Measuring Country Images to Explain Product Attitudes”; Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Oklohoma Eyalet Üniversitesi.
• Apil, Ali Rıza, Erdener Kaynak ve Nugzar Todua, (2008); “Georgian Consumers' Evaluation of Products Sourced From a Geographically Close Proximity Country”, Journal of Euromarketing, Vol. 17(3/4), pp.199-218.
• Askegaard S. ve Ger G., (1998); “Product-Country Images: Towards a Contextualized Approach”. In: English B, Olofsson A, editors. European Advances In Consumer Research;. p. 50–8.
• Barich, H. & Kotler, P. (1991) A framework for marketing image management. Sloan Management Review 32: 94–104.
• Batra, R., Ramaswamy, Alden, D.L., Steenkamp, J.-B.E.M., & Ramachander, S. (2000); “ Effects Of Brand Local/Non-Local Origin On Consumer Attitudes in Developing Countries”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol.9/2, pp:83-95.
• Bilkey, W.J. and Nes, E. (1982), “Country Of Origin Effects On Product Evaluation”, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 89-99.
• Bloemer J., Bris K. ve Kesper H. (2009), “The CoO-ELM Model: A Theoretical Model for The Cognitive Processes Underlying COO Affects”, European Journal of Marketing, V. 43, No.1/2: 62-89.
• Botschen, G., & Hemettsberger, A., (1998); “Diagnosing Means-End Structures to Determine the Degree of Potential Marketing Program Standardization”, Journal of Business Research, vol.42, pp.151-159.
• Bozbay, Zehra; (2007); “Tüketicilerin Çok Uluslu Ürün Değerlemelerinde Ürünün Üretildiği Ülke İmajı Ve Marka İmajı Etkilerinin Belirlenmesi”, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi.
• Brijs, K., Josée Bloemer ve Hans Kasper, (2011); “Country-image discourse model: Unraveling meaning, structure, and function of country images, Journal of Business Research, vol.64, pp.1259–1269.
• Brijs, Kris, (2006); “Unravelling Country-Of-Origin — Semiotics As A Theoretical Basis For A Meaningcentred Approach Towards Country-Of-Origin Effects”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen.
• Cengiz, Ekrem; Kirkbir, Fazil; (2007); “Turkish Consumers' Evaluation of Products Made in Foreign Countries” The Innovative Marketing; 3, 2; ProQuest pp. 72.
• Chattalas, Michael J., (2005); “The Effects Of National Stereotypes On Country Of Origin–Based Product Evaluations”, Doktora Tezi, Graduate Faculty in Business in The City University Of New York.
• Choe, S.T. and Cho, H.J. (2000), “The Effect Of Knowledge Of Asian Brands On The Purchase Decisions Of Young American Consumers On Products From China, Japan, And South Korea”, Advances in Competitiveness Research, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 81-91.
• Chon, K-S. (1990) The role of destination image in tourism: A review and discussion. Tourism Review 45: 2–9.
• Chung, Jae-Eun (2002); “Modelling the Differatial Effects of Brand Image and Country of Manufacture on Korean Consumers”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Michigan State University, Department of Human Environment and Design.
• Dichter, E. (1962) The world customer. Harvard Business Review 40: 113.
• Forgas, J. P. ve M. O’Driscoll (1984), “Cross-Cultural and Demographic Differences in the Perceptions of Nations”, Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 15, 199-222.
• Fournier, S., (1998); “Consumers and Their Brands: Developing Relationship Theory in Consumer Research”, Journal of Consumer Research, vol.24, pp.343-373.
• Friedman, M. (1996), “A Positive Approach To Organized Consumer Action: The ``Buycott'' As An Alternative To The Boycott”, Journal of Consumer Policy, 19, 439-451.
• Gertner, R.K. (2010) Similarities and differences of the effect of country images on tourist and study destinations. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 27: 383–395.
• Gilboa, E. (2008) Searching for a theory of public diplomacy. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616: 55–77.
• Gudero, Firew K. (2001), “The Effect Of Country Of Origin Of A Product On Consumers’ Buying Behavior”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
• Han, C. M. (1989), “Country Image: Halo or Summary Construct”, Journal of Marketing Research, 26(May), sf: 222-229.
• Han, C. M. (1990), “Testing the Role odf Country Image in Consumer Choice Behavior”, European Journal of Marketing, vol.24, no.6, pp.24-40.
• Han, C. M. ve Terpstra, V. (1988), ”Country of Origin Effects for Uni-national and Bi-national Products”, Journal of International Business Studies, 19(Summer), sf: 235-255.
• Han, C.M. & Terpstra, V. (1988) Country-of-origin effects for uni-national and bi-national products. Journal of International Business Studies 19: 235–255.
• Han, Jin-Wook, (2006); “The Impact of Self-Concept/Product-Image Congruity and Functional Congruity on Brand Preference: Three Product Categories”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, TFState University.
• Hauble, G. (1996), “A Cross-International Investigation Of The Effects Of Country-Of-Origin And Brand Name Of The Evaluation Of A New Car”, International Marketing Review, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 76-97.
• Heslop, L.A., Lu, I.R. ve Cray, D. (2008), “Modeling Country Image Effects Through An International Crisis”, International Marketing Review, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 354-78.
• Heslop, L.A., Papadopoulos, N., Dowdles, M.,Wall, M. ve Compeau, D. (2004), “Who Controls The Purse Strings: A Study Of Consumers’ And Retail Buyers’ Reactions in An America’s FTA Environment”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 57 No. 10, pp. 1177-88.
• Hong, S. T. ve Wyer, R. S., (1990a); “Determinants of Product Evaluation: Effects of the Time Interval Between Knowledge of a Product's Country of Origin and Information About Its Specific Attributes”, Journal of Consumer Research, 17, December.
• Hong, S.-T., & Wyer, Jr., R. S., (1989); “Effects of COO And Product-Attribute İnformation On Product Evaluation: An Information Processing Perspective”, Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 175-187.
• Hui, M. ve Zhou, L. (2003), “Country Of Manufacture Effects For Known Brands”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31 Nos 1/2, pp. 133-53.
• Hui, Michael K. ve Zhou, Lianxi, (2002); “Linking Product Evaluations and Purchase Intention for Country-of-Origin Effects”, Journal of Global Marketing, Vol. 15(3/4).
• Iyer, G.R. and Kalita, J.K. (1997), “The Impact Of Country-Of-Origin And Country-Of Manufacture Cues On Consumer Perceptions Of Quality And Value”, Journal of Global Marketing, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp.7-28.
• Jaffe, E. and Nebenzahl, I. (1984), “Alternative Questionnaire Formats for Country Image Studies,” Journal of Marketing Research, November, 463-71.
• Jaffe, E.D. & Nebenzahl, I.D. (2001) National Image and Competitive Advantage: The Theory and Practice of Place Branding. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press.
• Jenes, B. (2005): Possibilities of shaping country image. Marketing és Menedzsment, 2. pp.18-29.
• Johansson, J. K. ve Nebenzahl, I. D., (1986); “Multinational Production: Effect on Brand Value”, Journal of International Business Studies, vol.17, pp.101–126.
• Johansson, J. K., (1989); “Determinants and Effects of the Use of ‘Made in’ Labels”, International Marketing Review, vol.6, pp.47–58.
• Johansson, J. K., Douglas, S. P. ve Nonaka, I. (1985), “Assessing the Impact of Coutry of Origin on Product Evaluations: A New Methodological Perspective”, Journal of Marketing Research, 19 (November), sf: 388-396.
• Johansson, J.K., Ronkainen, I.A. and Czinkota, M.R. (1994), “Negative Country-Of-Origin Effects: The Case Of New Russia”, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 157-76.
• Jones, Russel A. ve Richard D. Ashmore (1973), “The Structure of Intergroup Perception: Categories and Dimentions in Views of Ethnic Groups and Adjectives Used in Stereotype Research”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25 (3), 428-438.
• Kelman, Herbert C. (1965), International Behavior, New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. Allred, Anthony T., (1997), “Measuring Country Images to Explain Product Attitudes”; Oklohoma Eyalet Üniversitesi, Doktora Tezi içinde.
• Klein J. G., Ettenson R., Morris M. D.; (1998); “The Animosity Model of Foreign Product Purchase: An Empirical Test in the People's Republic of China”, Journal of Marketing,62(1):89–100.
• Knight, G., Spreng, R. ve Yaprak, A. (2003), “Cross-National Development and Validation of an International Business Measurement Scale: the COISCALE,” International Business Review, 12, 581-599.
• Knight, G.A., & Calantone, R.J. (2000) "A flexible model of consumer country‐of‐origin perceptions: A cross‐cultural investigation", International Marketing Review, Vol. 17 Issue: 2, pp.127-145, https://doi.org/10.1108/02651330010322615.
• Kosterman, R. ve Feshbach, S., (1989); ”Toward A Measure Of Patriotic And Nationalistic Attitudes”, Political Psychology; 10(2):257–74. Roth Katharina P., Adamantios Diamantopoulos; (2009); “Advancing the country image construct”, Journal of Business Research 62 , pp.726–740 içinde.
• Kotler, P. & Gertner, D. (2002) Country as brand, product, and beyond: A place marketing and brand management perspective. Journal of Brand Management 9: 249–261.
• Kotler, P., Haider, D. & Rein, I. (1993): Marketing Places: Attracting Investment and Tourism to Cities, States and Nations, The Free Press, 1993, p. 141.
• Kotler, Philip ve Gary Armstrong, (1999); “Principles of Marketing”, Eight Edition, Prentice-Hall International Inc.
• Kunczik, M. (1997) Images of Nations and International Public Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Kunczik, M. (2002) Globalisation: News media, images of nations and the flow of international capital with special reference to the role of rating agencies. Journal of International Communication 8: 39–79.
• Laroche, Michel; Nicolas Papadopoulos, Louise Heslop, Jasmin Bergeron (2005) “Effects of Subcultural Differences on Country and Product Evaluations”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol.2, No.3, March pp.232-247.
• Lefkoff-Hagius, R. ve Mason, C. H., (1993); “Characteristic, Beneficial and Image Attributes in Consumer Judgments of Similarity and Preference.”, Journal of Consumer Research, vol.20, pp.100-110.
• Leonard, M., Stead, C., and Smewing, C. (2002) Public Diplomacy. London: Central Books.
• Leonidou, Leonidas C., Dayananda Palihawadana, Michael A. Talias, (2007),"British consumers' evaluations of US versus Chinese goods: A multi-level and multi-cue comparison", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 41 Iss: 7 pp. 786 – 820.
• Li, W.-K. ve Monroe, K. B., (1992); “The Role Of Country-of-Origin Information on Buyers’ Product Evaluation: An in-Depth Interview Approach”, Proceedings of the 1992 AMA Summer Educators' Conference, pp. 274-280.
• Li, W.-K., ve Wyer, Jr., R. S., (1994); “The Role of Country of Origin in Product Evaluations: Informational and Standard-of-Comparison Effects”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 3, 187-212.
• Liefeld, J. (1993), "Experiments on country of origin effects: review and meta-analysis of effect size", in Papadopoulos, N., Heslop, L. (Eds), Product-country Images, International Business Press, New York, NY, pp.117-56.
• Maher, A. A. ve Carter, L. L., (2011); “The Affective and Cognitive Components of Country Image: Perceptions of American Products in Kuwait” International Marketing Review, Vol. 28 Iss: 6 pp. 559 – 580.
• Maher, A. A. ve Carter, L. L., (2011); “The Affective and Cognitive Components of Country Image: Perceptions of American Products in Kuwait” International Marketing Review, Vol. 28 Iss: 6 pp. 559 – 580.
• Manrai L. A., Lascu, D. N. ve Manrai, A. K., (1998), “ Interactive Effects of Country of Origin and Product Category on Product Evaluations”, International Business Rewiev, 7, sf. 591-615.
• Martin, I. and Eroglu, S. (1993), “Measuring a Multi-Dimensional Construct: Country Image,” Journal of Business Research, 28, 191-210.
• Nagashima A (1977), “A Comparative Made in Product Image Survey Among Japanese Businessmen,” Journal of Marketing, 41, 95-100.
• Nagashima, A. (1970); “A Comparison of Japanese and U.S. Attitudes Toward Foreign Products”, Journal of Marketing, 34, January.
• Nart, Sima (2008), “Menşe Ülke Etkisinin Tüketici Algılamaları ve Davranışlarına aynsımaları: İngiltere Pazarında Türk ve Alman Markalarının Karşılaştırılması”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Y.2008, C.13, S.3 s.153-177.
• Nebenzahl, I.D. & Jaffe, E.D. (1996) Measuring the joint effect of brand and country image in consumer evaluation of global products. International Marketing Review 13: 5–22.
• Oberecker E. M., Riefler P. ve Diamantopoulos A., (2008); “ The Consumer Affinity Construct: Conseptualization, Qualitative Investigation and Research Agenda”, Journal of International Marketing, vol.16, no.3, pp.23-56.
• Obermiller C, Spangenberg E., (1989); “Exploring The Effects Of Country-Of-Origin Labels: an Information Processing Framework”, Advertising and Consumer Research, 16(1):454–9.
• Obermiller C., Spangenberg E. R., Perkins A. W., (1999); “Predicting The Effects Of Country Of Origin As An Information Cue”, Asian Journal of Marketing, 7(1).
• Osman Mohamad; Ahmed, Zafar U; Honeycutt, Earl D, Jr; Taizoon Hyder Tyebkhan, (2000); “Does "Made İn..." Matter To Consumers? A Malaysian Study of Country of Origin Effect”, Multinational Business Review; Fall 2000; 8, 2; ABI/INFORM Complete, pg. 69.
• Papadopoulos, N., (2004), “Place branding: Evolution, meaning and implications”, Place Branding 1: 36–49.
• Papadopoulos, N. ve Heslop, L. A., (1993); “Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing.”, New York: International Business Press.
• Papadopoulos, N., Heslop, L.A., & Bamossy, G.A. (1990), “A comparative image analysis of domestic versus imported products” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7, 283 –294.
• Pappu R., Quester P. G., Cooksey R. W., (2007); “Country image and consumer-based brand equity: Relationships and implications for international marketing”, Journal of International Business Studies 38(5):726-745.
• Parameswaran, R., & Yaprak, A., (1987); “A Cross-National Comparison of Consumer Research Measures”, Journal of International Business Studies, 18(Spring), 35-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490398.
• Phillips, WooMi Jo; Amelia Asperin, Kara Wolfe; (2011); “Investigating the effect of country image and subjective knowledge on attitudes and behaviors: U.S. Upper Midwesterners’ intentions to consume Korean Food and visit Korea”, Journal of Hospitality Management, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.04.003.
• Piron, F., 2000; “Consumers’ Perceptions of Country of Origin Effects on Purchasing Intentions of (in) Conspicouous Products”, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17(4), 307-321.
• Robinson, J. P. Ve R. Hefner (1967), “Multidimensional Differences in Public and Academic Perceptions of Nations”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 251-259. Allred, Anthony T., (1997), “Measuring Country Images to Explain Product Attitudes”; Oklohoma Eyalet Üniversitesi, Doktora Tezi içinde.
• Roth, Katharina P. ve Adamantios, Diamantopoulos; (2009); “Advancing The Country Image Construct”, Journal of Business Research, Vol.62, pp.726–740.
• Roth, Katharina P. ve Zabkar, Vesna, (2011); “Cognitive, Affective and Symbolic Country Connotations: Conceptual Underpinnings, Interrelationships and Impact on Consumer’s Behavioral Intentions”, American Marketing Association, Summer, p.252-253.
• Roth, M.S., & Romeo, J.B. (1992)., “Matching product category and country image perceptions: A framework for managing country-of-origin effects”, Journal of International Business Studies, 64(3), 477–497.
• Saywell, T. (1999), “The Long March”, Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 162 No. 2, pp. 66-8.
• Schatz R. R., Staub E. ve Lavine H., (1999); “On The Varieties Of National Attachment: Blind Versus Constructive Patriotism”, Political Psychology, 20(1):151–74.
• Shankarmahesh M. N., (2006); “Consumer Ethnocentrism: An Integrative Review of its Antecedents and Consequences”, International Marketing Review, 23(2):146–72.
• Shimp T. A. ve Sharma S., (1987); “Consumer Ethnocentrism: Construction and Validation of the CETSCALE”, Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3):280–9.
• Sikand, Ahluwalia Kiranjit (1999), “Extrinsic and Intrinsic Cue Utiliazation: Effect of Country of Origin on Cmanraonsumer Attitude, A Synthesis Approach”, Connecticut Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi.
• Smith, N. (1990); “Morality And The Market”, London: Routledge. Peeter W.J. ve Verlegh, Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp, (1999); “A Review And Meta-Analysis Of Country-Of-Origin Research”, Journal of Economic Psychology 2, 521-546 içinde.
• Srikatanyoo, N. & Gnoth, J. (2002) Country image and international tertiary education. Journal of Brand Management 10: 139–146.
• Steenkamp, J. -B. E. M. (1989). “Product quality”. Van Gorcum, Assen (NL). Peeter W.J. ve Verlegh, Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp, (1999); “A Review And Meta-Analysis Of Country-Of-Origin Research”, Journal of Economic Psychology 2, 521-546 içinde.
• Sun, H.H. (2008) International political marketing: A case study of United States soft power and public diplomacy. Journal of Public Affairs 8: 165–183.
• Tapachi, N. & Waryszak, R. (2000) An examination of the role of beneficial image in tourist destination selection. Journal of Travel Research 39: 37–44.
• Tek, Ömer Baybars, (1999); “Pazarlama İlkeleri Global Yönetimsel Yaklaşım Türkiye Uygulamaları”, 8. Baskı, İstanbul, Beta Basım A.Ş.
• Verlegh, Peeter W.J. ve Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp, (1999); “A Review And Meta-Analysis Of Country-Of-Origin Research”, Journal of Economic Psychology 2, 521-546.
• Vishal Lala, Anthony T. Allred ve Goutam Chakraborty, (2009); “A Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Country Image”, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 21:51-66.
• Walmsley, D.J. and Young, M. (1998) Evaluative images and tourism: The use of personal constructs to describe the structure of destination images. Journal of Travel Research 36: 65–69.
• Wang, C. L., Li, D.,Barnes, B. R., Ahn, J., (2012); “Country Image, Product Image and Consumer Purchase Intention: Evidence From an Emerging Economy”. International Business Review, doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2011.11.010.
• Wang, X. ve Han, G., (2012); “Understanding ‘Made in China’: Valence Framing and Product-Country Image”, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(2), pp.225-243.
• Wee, C.H., Lim, D.T.E. & Tan, Y.W.G. (1993) The image of countries as locations for investment. In: Papadopoulos N and Heslop LA (eds) Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 311–338.
• Wish, Myron; Morton Deutsch, ve Lois Biener (1970), “Differences in Conceptual Structures of Nations: An Explatory Study”, Journal of Personality and Social Psycology, 16 (3), 361-373.