Etnik Ayrımcılığın İnsan Ticaretini Önleme Üzerine Etkisi

Year 2023, Volume: 32 Issue: 1, 113 - 131, 08.04.2023

Saadet Ulaşoğlu İmamoğlu

https://doi.org/10.26650/siyasal.2023.32.1146568

Abstract

İnsan ticareti konusundaki yaygın endişe nedeni ile uluslararası toplum, ülkelerin bu ciddi suçu ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik önlemler almalarını gerektiren kapsayıcı bir yasal çerçeve geliştirmiştir. Bu uluslararası yasal çerçevenin önemli bir parçası olarak ülkelerin, insanların herhangi bir sömürüye maruz kalmalarını önleme konusunda sorumlulukları vardır. Savunmasız durumda olan insanları, henüz bir sömürü ortaya çıkmadan önce, bu ortaya çıkabilecek olan sömürüden korumak için ülkelerin, sömürülmeye karşı kırılganlığı arttıran ve insan ticaretine yönelik talebi yükselten faktörleri hafifletmeyi içeren önleyici tedbirleri uygulamaları beklenmektedir. Etnik ayrımcılık, bireyleri insan ticaretine karşı savunmasız hale getiren, ve ek olarak, bu ağır suça yönelik talebi arttıran bir faktör olarak kabul edilirken, onun insan ticaretini önlemeye yönelik tedbirlerin uygulanması üzerine olan etkisi son zamanlarda yapılan çalışmalar tarafından sınırlı bir ilgi ile karşılanmıştır. Bu boşluğu doldurmak için yapılan bu çalışma, etnik ayrımcılığın, ülkelerin insan ticaretini önleme konusunda aldıkları tedbirler üzerine bir etkisi olup olmadığını teorik olarak tartışmakta ve ampirik olarak incelemektedir. 2003 yılından 2015 yılına kadar olan dönem üzerinden 165 ülkeyi kapsayan bir veri seti temel alınarak yapılan sayısal analizin sonuçları, etnik ayrımcılığın insan ticaretini önleme üzerinde kötüleştirici bir etkisi olduğunu göstermektedir.

Keywords

İnsan Ticareti, Etnik Ayrımcılık, Birleşmiş Milletler, Palermo Protokolü, İnsan Ticaretini Önleme

The Impact of Ethnic Discrimination on the Prevention of Human Trafficking

Abstract

Due to the ubiquitous concern about human trafficking, the international community has developed a comprehensive legal framework that requires countries to take effective measures to eliminate this grave crime. As an essential part of this international legal framework, countries have a responsibility to prevent people from being exposed to any type of exploitation. In order to save vulnerable people from exploitation before it transpires, countries are expected to implement preventative measures including alleviation of the factors that increase vulnerability to being exploited and encourage the demand for human trafficking. While ethnic discrimination has been acknowledged as a factor that renders individuals vulnerable to human trafficking and also bolsters the demand for this severe crime, its effect on the implementation of prevention measures has received limited attention from recent studies. To fill this gap, this study theoretically discusses and empirically examines whether or not ethnic discrimination affects countries’ preventative measures for human trafficking. The results of statistical analysis based on a data set that involves 165 countries over the years between 2003 and 2015 show that ethnic discrimination deteriorates the prevention of human trafficking.

Keywords

Human Trafficking, Ethnic Discrimination, United Nations, Palermo Protocol, Prevention of Human Trafficking

References

• Avdeyeva, O. A. (2012). Does reputation matter for states compliance with international treaties? States enforcement of anti-trafficking norms. The International Journal of Human Rights, 16(2), 298–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2010.540240
• Akee, R. K. Q., Basu, A. K., Chau, N. H., & Khamis, M. (2010). Ethnic fragmentation, conflict, displaced persons and human trafficking: an empirical analysis. IZA Discussion Paper No. 5142. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/46018/1/653897561.pdf
• Bartilow, H. A., (2008, March). Gender representation and the sex trade: Domestic sources of international compliance against human trafficking [Paper presentation]. The International Studies Association Annual Convention, San Francisco, CA, United States.
• Bedoya, E., Bedoya, A. M., & Belser, P. (2009). Debt bondage and ethnic discrimination in Latin America. In B. Andrees & P. Belser (Eds.), Forced labor: Coercion and exploitation in the private economy (pp. 35-50). Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Butler, C. (2015). The racial roots of human trafficking. UCLA Law Review, 62(6), 1464-1515. https://www.uclalawreview.org/racial-roots-human-trafficking/
• Cho, S. (2015). Evaluating policies against human trafficking worldwide: An overview and review of the 3P index. Journal of Human Trafficking, 1(1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2015.1014660
• Cho, S., Dreher, A., & Neumayer, E. (2014). Determinants of anti-trafficking policies: Evidence from a new index. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 116(2), 429–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12055
• Cho, S., & Vadlamannati, K. C. (2012). Compliance with the anti-trafficking protocol. European Journal of Political Economy, 28(2), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.12.003
• De Soto, H., Beddies, S., & Gedeshi, I. (2005). Roma and Egyptians in Albania: From social exclusion to social inclusion. World Bank Working Paper No. 53. Washington, D.C. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/7313/32181.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
• European Roma Rights Centre. (2011). Breaking the silence: A Report by the European Roma Rights Centre and people in need - Trafficking in Romani communities. http://www.errc.org/uploads/upload_en/file/breaking-the-silence-19-march-2011.pdf
• Gleditsch, N. P., Wallensteen, P., Eriksson, M., Sollenberg, M., & Strand, H. (2002). Armed conflict 1946-2001: A new dataset. Journal of Peace Research, 39(5), 615–637. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343302039005007
• Gutierrez Chong, N. (2014). Human trafficking and sex industry: Does ethnicity and race matter? Journal of Intercultural Studies, 35(2), 196-213. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2014.885413
• Hathaway, O. A. (2007). Why do countries commit to human rights treaties? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(4), 588–621. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002707303046
• International Labor Organization. (2006). Demand side of human trafficking in Asia: Empirical findings. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_73_en.pdf
• International Labor Organization. (2017). Global estimates of modern slavery. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_575479.pdf
• Kempadoo, K. (2004). Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, race and sexual labor. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203338087
• Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. D., & Jaggers, K. (2019). Polity IV project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800-2018. http://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html
• Neumayer, E. (2005). Do international human rights treaties improve respect for human rights? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(6), 925–953. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002705281667
• Omelaniuk, I. (2006). Gender, poverty reduction and migration. https://lib.icimod.org/record/12540
• Pettersson, T., Högbladh, S., & Öberg, M. (2019). Organized violence, 1989-2018 and peace agreements. Journal of Peace Research, 56(4), 589-603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343319856046
• Poulin, R. (2003). Globalization and the sex trade: Trafficking and the commodification of women and children. Canadian Women Studies, 22(3), 38-47. https://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/6411/5599
• Schonhofer, J. (2017). Political determinants of efforts to protect victims of human trafficking. Crime, Law and Social Change, 67, 153–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-016-9643-5
• Todres, J. (2009). Law, otherness, and human trafficking. Santa Clara Law Review, 49(3), 605-672. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1362542
• United Nations. (2000). The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/protocoltraffickinginpersons.aspx
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2008). An introduction to human trafficking: Vulnerability, impact and action. https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/Intro_Human_Trafficking.pdf
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2018). Global report on trafficking in persons. https://www.unodc.org/ documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GLOTiP_2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf.
• United States Department of State. (2020). Trafficking in persons report. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2020-TIP-Report-Complete-062420-FINAL.pdf
• United States Department of State. (2021). Trafficking in persons report. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf
• Velentza, C. (2020). Early marriage and education drop out in traditional Roma communities in Transylvania, Journal of Gypsy Studies, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.33182/jgs.v2.i1.614
• Vogt, Manuel, Nils-Christian Bormann, Seraina Ruegger, Lars-Erik Cederman, Philipp Hunziker, and Luc Girardin. 2015. Integrating data on ethnicity, geography, and conflict: The ethnic power relations data set family. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(7), 1327-1342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002715591215
• von Stein, J. (2016). Making promises, keeping promises: Democracy, ratification and compliance in international human rights law. British Journal of Political Science, 46(3), 655–679. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123414000489
• Wimmer, A., Cederman, L., & Min, B. (2009). Ethnic politics and armed conflict: A configurational analysis of a new global dataset. American Sociological Review, 74(2), 316–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400208
• World Bank. (2019). World Development Indicators 2019. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicator