Çifte Ayrımcılık: Türkiye'deki Suriyeli ve Ukraynalı Göçmen Girişimcilerin İş İlanlarına Yönelik Tutumlar

Year 2024, Volume: 5 Issue: 3, 315 - 342

Edib Ali Pehlivanlı

https://doi.org/10.54733/smar.1506325

Abstract

Bu çalışma vignette (kısa hikaye) deney yöntemi kullanarak göçmen girişimcilere karşı ayrımcı tutumları incelemektedir. Çalışmanın amacı, etnik kökene dayalı önyargıların, göçmen girişimcilerin işe ilanlarına başvuru niyetlerini nasıl etkilediğini, özellikle Suriyeli ve Ukraynalı girişimcileri Türk girişimcilerle karşılaştırarak değerlendirmektir. Araştırmanın hedefleri arasında; Göçmen girişimcilere karşı ayrımcı uygulamaların, göçmen işçilere karşı yaşananlardan farklı olup olmadığını belirlemek; Türkiye’de göçmen girişimcilere karşı ayrımcılığın varlığını ve doğasını keşfetmek, bu ayrımcılığın tercih temelli ve/veya istatistiksel temelli olmasını incelemek; Orta Doğu (Suriye) ve Avrupa (Ukrayna) kökenli girişimciler arasında potansiyel çifte ayrımcılığı araştırmak; İş ilanlarında girişimcinin etnik kökenine ilişkin ipuçlarının yer almasının başvurucunun başvuru niyetini doğrudan etkileyip etkilemediğini analiz etmek. Elde edilen bulgular, göçmen girişimcilerin önemli bir ayrımcılığa maruz kaldığını, Suriyeli girişimcilerin Ukraynalılara kıyasla daha fazla önyargı ile karşılaştığını, bunun nedeninin jeopolitik ve kültürel faktörlere dayandığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışma, göçmen çalışanların karşılaştıkları ayrımcılığı araştıran önceki çalışmalardan farklılaşarak, göçmen girişimcilerin iş ilanlarına karşı potansiyel başvurucuların tutumlarını inceleyerek ayrımcılık araştırmalarına yeni bir perspektif sunmaktadır. Araştırmanın sonucunda, göçmen girişimcileri desteklemek ve Türk ekonomisine katılımlarını artırmak için kapsayıcı politika ve uygulamaların gerektiği, daha adil ve katılımcı bir girişimcilik ortamına ihtiyaç olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır.

Keywords

tercih temelli ayrımcılık, istatistiksel ayrımcılık, göçmen girişimciler, istihdam engelleri

Double Discrimination: Attitudes toward Syrian and Ukrainian Immigrant Entrepreneurs' Job Postings in Türkiye

Abstract

This study uses a vignette experiment to examine the discriminatory attitudes towards immigrant entrepreneurs. The aim is to assess how biases based on ethnicity affect the job application intentions directed towards immigrant entrepreneurs, specifically comparing those from Syria and Ukraine with their Turkish counterparts. The research addresses several objectives: to determine whether discriminatory practices against immigrant entrepreneurs differ from those faced by immigrant workers; to explore the presence and nature of discrimination against immigrant entrepreneurs in Türkiye, including taste-based and statistical forms of discrimination; to investigate potential double discrimination between entrepreneurs of Middle Eastern (Syria) and European (Ukraine) origins; and to analyze whether ethnic cues in job advertisements influence job application intentions. Findings reveal that immigrant entrepreneurs experience significant discrimination, with Syrian entrepreneurs facing more bias compared to Ukrainians, influenced by geopolitical and cultural factors. This study offers a new perspective by examining how potential applicants respond to job advertisements from immigrant entrepreneurs, differing from previous research on discrimination faced by immigrant workers. The results highlight the need for inclusive policies and practices to support immigrant entrepreneurs and enhance their participation in the Turkish economy, contributing to a more equitable and diverse entrepreneurial landscape.

Keywords

taste-based discrimination, statistical discrimination, immigrant entrepreneurs, employment barriers

Ethical Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by Aksaray University - Human Research Ethics Committee No. 2023/06-29, approval date: 23 October 2023.

References

• Adamovic, M. (2020). Analyzing discrimination in recruitment: A guide and best practices for resume studies. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 28(4), 445-464. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12298
• Adida, C. L., Laitin, D. D., & Valfort, M. A. (2016). Why Muslim integration fails in Christian-heritage societies. Harvard University Press.
• Alba, R. D., & Nee, V. (2003). Remaking the American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration. Harvard University Press.
• Arrow, K. J. (1998). What has economics to say about racial discrimination?. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12(2), 91-100. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.12.2.91
• Atzmüller, C., & Steiner, P. M. (2010). Experimental vignette studies in survey research. Methodology, 6(3), 128-138. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000014
• Auer, D., & Ruedin, D. (2019). Who feels disadvantaged? Reporting discrimination in surveys. In I. Steiner, & P. Wanner (Eds.), Migrants and expats: The Swiss migration and mobility nexus (pp. 221-242). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05671-1_9
• Awotoye, Y., & Singh, R. P. (2018). Immigrant entrepreneurs in the USA. New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, 21(2), 123-139. https://doi.org/10.1108/neje-08-2018-0017
• Baert, S., & Pauw, A. D. (2014). Is ethnic discrimination due to distaste or statistics?. Economics Letters, 125(2), 270-273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2014.09.020
• Baert, S., Cockx, B., Gheyle, N., & Vandamme, C. (2015). Is there less discrimination in occupations where recruitment is difficult?. ILR Review, 68(3), 467-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793915570873
• Barth, H., & Zalkat, G. (2020). Immigrant entrepreneurship in Sweden: The liability of newness. Sustainability, 12(16), 6478. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166478
• Bartolucci, C. (2014). Understanding the native–immigrant wage gap using matched employer-employee data. ILR Review, 67(4), 1166-1202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793914546300
• Becker, G. S. (1957). The economics of discrimination. University of Chicago Press.
• Binggeli, S., Dietz, J., & Krings, F. (2013). Immigrants: A forgotten minority. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6(1), 107-113. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12019
• Birkelund, G. E., Johannessen, L. E., Rasmussen, E. B., & Rogstad, J. (2020). Experience, stereotypes and discrimination. Employers’ reflections on their hiring behavior. European Societies, 22(4), 503-524. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1775273
• Brieger, S. A., & Gielnik, M. M. (2020). Understanding the gender gap in immigrant entrepreneurship: A multi-country study of immigrants’ embeddedness in economic, social, and institutional contexts. Small Business Economics, 56, 1007-1031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00314-x
• Bryson, A., & Chevalier, A. (2014). What happens when employers are free to discriminate? Evidence from the English barclays premier fantasy football league. IZA Discussion Paper No. 8177. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2441473
• Brzozowski, J., & Cucculelli, M. (2020). Transnational ties and performance of immigrant firms: Evidence from central Italy. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 26(8), 1787-1806. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-10-2019-0582
• Busetta, G., Campolo, M. G., & Panarello, D. (2020). The discrimination decomposition index: A new instrument to separate statistical and taste-based discrimination using first- and second-generation immigrants. International Journal of Social Economics, 47(12), 1577-1597. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijse-02-2020-0055
• Cadenas, G. A., Cantú, E. A., Sosa, R., Carroll, S., Lynn, N., Suro, B., & Ruth, A. (2023). An educational program affirming immigrant entrepreneurship, critical consciousness, and cultural strengths. The Career Development Quarterly, 71(4), 284-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12335
• Chidau, T., & Khosa, R. (2022). The interoperability of mobile phone technology as a way to improve immigrant entrepreneurship in South Africa. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 11(10), 24-34. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v11i10.2086
• Cooray, A., Marfouk, A., & Nazir, M. (2018). Public opinion and immigration: Who favours employment discrimination against immigrants?. International Migration, 56(6), 5-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12457
• De Leon, R. P., & Rosette, A. S. (2022). “Invisible” discrimination: Divergent outcomes for the nonprototypicality of black women. Academy of Management Journal, 65(3), 784-812. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2020.1623
• Derous, E., Pepermans, R., & Ryan, A. M. (2016). Ethnic discrimination during résumé screening: Interactive effects of applicants’ ethnic salience with job context. Human Relations, 70(7), 860-882. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726716676537
• Dietz, J. (2010). Introduction to the special issue on employment discrimination against immigrants. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25(2), 104-112. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683941011019320
• Duan, C., Kotey, B., & Sandhu, K. (2021). The effects of cross-border e-commerce platforms on transnational digital entrepreneurship. Journal of Global Information Management, 30(2), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.4018/jgim.20220301.oa2
• Eifler, S., & Petzold, K. (2019). Validity aspects of vignette experiments: Expected “what‐if” differences between reports of behavioral intentions and actual behavior. In P. Lavrakas, M. Traugott, C. Kennedy, A. Holbrook, E. de Leeuw, & B. West (Eds.), Experimental methods in survey research: Techniques that combine random sampling with random assignment (pp. 393-416). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119083771.ch20
• Elgin, C., & Elveren, A. Y. (2024). Wage-productivity gap and discrimination against Syrian refugees: Evidence from Turkey. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1017/elr.2024.15
• Enoksen, E. (2016). Perceived discrimination against immigrants in the workplace. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 35(2), 66-80. https://doi.org/10.1108/edi-07-2015-0058
• Eraydin, A., Taşan-Kok, T., & Vranken, J. (2010). Diversity matters: Immigrant entrepreneurship and contribution of different forms of social integration in economic performance of cities. European Planning Studies, 18(4), 521-543. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654311003593556
• Eren, M. V, Tutar, E., Tutar, F. K., & Erkan, Ç. (2012). The role of entrepreneurship in local economic growth: Example of Gaziantep. In S. Sarı, A. H. Gencer, B. Aşık, & A. Turdalieva (Eds.), International conference on Eurasian economies 2012 (pp. 369-373). Turan University Press. https://doi.org/10.36880/c03.00487
• Fatoki, O. (2018). Work-life conflict of native and immigrant entrepreneurs in South Africa. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 10(4(J), 174-184. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v10i4(j).2419
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149-1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
• Fedyuk, O., & Kindler, M. (2016). Migration of Ukrainians to the European Union: Background and key issues. O. Fedyuk, & M. Kindler (Eds.), Ukrainian migration to the European Union (pp. 1-14). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41776-9_1
• Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
• Gallucci, M. (2020). JAMM: Jamovi Advanced Mediation Models. [jamovi module]. https://jamovi-amm.github.io/ (Accessed Date: 22 January 2024).
• Ganesan, M., Antony, S. P., & George, E. P. (2018). Dimensions of job advertisement as signals for achieving job seeker’s application intention. Journal of Management Development, 37(5), 425-438. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-02-2017-0055
• Gölgeci, İ., Arslan, A., Kentosová, V., Callaghan, D., & Pereira, V. (2023). The role of marketing agility and risk propensity in resilience and survival of Eastern European immigrant entrepreneurs in Denmark. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-03-2022-0214
• Hainmueller, J., & Hangartner, D. (2013). Who gets a Swiss passport? A natural experiment in immigrant discrimination. American Political Science Review, 107(1), 159-187. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055412000494
• Hair, J. F. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th Edition). Prentice Hall.
• Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.
• Ji, Y., & Bouguettaya, A. (2021). Examining the effect of social identity of British Asian transgender and gender non-conforming people on mental health and well-being: A mixed method pilot study [Master’s Thesis]. University of Birmingham.
• Kampelmann, S., & Rycx, F. (2016). Wage discrimination against immigrants: Measurement with firm-level productivity data. Iza Journal of Migration, 5, 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-016-0063-1
• Kavuş, H. K. (2019). Diasporada güzellik: Almanya’da kadın etnik girişimciliği. Kültür ve İletişim, 22(44), 95-124. https://doi.org/10.18691/kulturveiletisim.629060
• Kock, N. (2017). Common method bias: A full collinearity assessment method for PLS-SEM. In H. Latan, & R. Noonan (Eds.), Partial least squares path modeling: Basic concepts, methodological issues and applications (pp. 245-257). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64069-3_11
• Kung, F. Y. H., Kwok, N., & Brown, D. J. (2018). Are attention check questions a threat to scale validity?. Applied Psychology, 67(2), 264-283. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12108
• Kunz, T., & Fuchs, M. (2019). Dynamic instructions in check-all-that-apply questions. Social Science Computer Review, 37(1), 104-118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317748890
• Lane, T. (2019). Get her off my screen: Taste-based discrimination in a high-stakes popularity contest. Oxford Economic Papers, 71(3), 548-563. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpy069
• Lang, C. (2021). Accessing the public workforce: Organisational recruitment practices and the inclusion or exclusion of individuals of immigrant origin. Comparative Migration Studies, 9, 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-021-00233-5
• Laurence, J., Kelly, E., McGinnity, F., & Curristan, S. (2023). Wages and working conditions of non-Irish nationals in Ireland. Economic and Social Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.26504/jr2
• Melaku, T. M. (2022). Black women in white institutional spaces: The invisible labor clause and the inclusion tax. American Behavioral Scientist, 66(11), 1512-1525. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642211066037
• Oreopoulos, P. (2011). Why do skilled immigrants struggle in the labor market? A field experiment with thirteen thousand resumes. American Economic Journal Economic Policy, 3(4), 148-171. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.3.4.148
• Özçürümez, S., & Yetkin, D. (2014). Limits to regulating irregular migration in Turkey: What constrains public policy and why?. Turkish Studies, 15(3), 442-457. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2014.954746
• Özgür, E. M., & Deniz, A. (2023). Diaspora mobilization and identity construction of Ukrainian immigrants in Turkey: “Ukrainians started to become more Ukrainian”. Nationalities Papers, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2023.80
• Phelps, E. S. (1972). The statistical theory of racism and sexism. The American Economic Review, 62(4), 659-661.
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
• Psoinos, M. (2015). Researching migrants who hold nomadic identities. Equality Diversity and Inclusion, 34(4), 293-307. https://doi.org/10.1108/edi-04-2012-0032
• Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
• Sesko, A. K., & Biernat, M. (2010). Prototypes of race and gender: The invisibility of Black women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2), 356-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.10.016
• Shinnar, R. S., & Nayır, D. Z. (2019). Immigrant entrepreneurship in an emerging economy: The case of Turkey. Journal of Small Business Management, 57(2), 559-575. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12408
• Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290-312. https://doi.org/10.2307/270723
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2003). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Social Psychology, 4, 73-98.
• Ülker, B. (2019). Ethnic/immigrant entrepreneurship through the yellow pages in Berlin. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 110(5), 553-565. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12371
• Vernby, K., & Dancygier, R. M. (2019). Can immigrants counteract employer discrimination? A factorial field experiment reveals the immutability of ethnic hierarchies. Plos One, 14(7), e0218044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218044
• Vinogradov, E., & Kolvereid, L. (2010). Home country national intelligence and self-employment rates among immigrants in Norway. Intelligence, 38(1), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2009.09.004
• Zighan, S. (2021). Challenges faced by necessity entrepreneurship, the case of Syrian refugees in Jordan. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 15(4), 531-547. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEC-09-2020-0168
• Zschirnt, E., & Ruedin, D. (2016). Ethnic Discrimination in Hiring Decisions: A Meta-Analysis of Correspondence Tests 1990–2015. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(7), 1115-1134. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2015.1133279
• Zussman, A. (2013). Ethnic discrimination: Lessons From the Israeli online market for used cars. The Economic Journal, 123(572), F433-F468. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12059