Ne Eğitimde Ne İstihdamda (NEET) Olma ile İlişkili Faktörlerin OECD Bağlantılı Ülkelerde Karşılaştırmalı Analizi: Bulanık Küme Nitel Karşılaştırmalı Analiz (fsQCA)

Year 2023, , 437 - 475, 26.07.2023

Rabia Çizel , Volkan Aşkun , Şerife Durmaz , Ayten Yağmur , Sergen Gürsoy

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2023.03.21

Cited By: 2

Abstract

Bu çalışmada, OECD ile ilişkili ülkelerin NEET durumları ekonomik ve sosyokültürel değişkenlerin birlikteliğiyle ele alınmış ve bulanık küme nitel karşılaştırmalı analiz (fsQCA) yöntemi ile incelenmiştir. Çalışmada, raporlar, endeksler ve veri bankalarından alınan ikincil veriler kullanılmıştır. Çalışmadaki tüm konfigürasyonlar değerlendirildiğinde, ekonomik gelişmişlik düzeyi düşük/yüksek olmasına rağmen liberal veya muhafazakâr politika güden ülkelerde NEET olma durumu ortaya çıkarken, NEET olmama durumunun daha çok geniş sosyal politika önlemleri içeren ekonomik gelişmişlik düzeyi yüksek ve sosyal demokrat refah devleti politikaları günden ülkelerde ortaya çıktığı görülmüştür. Sosyal politikalar kapsamında korunması gereken bir örneklem olan NEET’lerin ancak devlet eliyle yapılan kapsamlı korumalarla ortadan kaldırılabileceği görülmüştür.

Keywords

NEET, Sosyal Politika, fsQCA, Nitel Karşılaştırmalı Analiz

Comparative Analysis of NEET-Related Factors in OECD-Linked Countries: Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA)

Abstract

This study examined the NEET status of OECD nations using sociocultural variables and evaluated using a fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis method. Secondary data from reports, indices, and data banks were employed in this study. When all configurations within the study are reviewed, the NEET condition appears in nations with liberal or conservative policies, regardless of their development levels. The non-NEET condition emerges in highly developed countries with extensive social policy initiatives and socialist policies. As a sample protected by social programs, the government’s comprehensive defences could only remove the NEETs.

Keywords

NEET, Social Policy, fsQCA, Qualitative Comparative Analysis

References

• Abdullah, M.B. et al. (2017), “Employment Generated by Government Spending on Education”, International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(2), 738-742.
• Abisuga-Oyekunle, O.A. et al. (2020), “SMEs in Sustainable Development: Their Role in Poverty Reduction and Employment Generation in Sub-Saharan Africa”, African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 12(4), 405-419.
• Acosta-Ballesteros, J. et al. (2014), “Education and Unemployment Patterns for Young Workers with Job Experience in Spain”, International Scholarly Research Notices.
• Agh, A. et al. (2021), Hungary Report: Sustainable Governance in the Context of the Covid-19 Crisis, SGI, <https://www.sgi-network.org/2020/>, 12.12.2021.
• Amendola, S. (2022), “Macro-Determinants of NEET: An Ecological Study at the Country Level of Analysis for the Period 1997-2020”, Youth, 2(3), 384-390.
• Arabacı, R.Y. (2020), “The Socio-Demographic Structure of Young People Not in Education, Employment or Training and Their Connection with the Labour Market in Turkey”, Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 53(3), 103-130.
• Armstrong, K. et al. (2018), Preparing Tomorrow’s Workforce for the Fourth Industrial Revolution for Business: A Framework for Action, Deloitte & The Global Business Coalition for Education.
• Arts, W. & J. Gelissen (2002), “Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-Art Report”, Journal of European Social Policy, 12(2), 137-158.
• Aşkun, V. et al. (2021), “Ülkelerin İnovasyon Düzeyinin Sosyal Sermaye, Ekonomik Değer Algısı ve Politik Kültürle Karmaşık İlişkisi: Bulanık Küme Nitel Karşılaştırmalı Analiz”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 16(2), 317-340.
• Baggio, S. et al. (2015), “Not in Education, Employment, or Training Status Among Young Swiss Men. Longitudinal Associations with Mental Health And Substance Use”, Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(2), 238-243.
• Bardak, U. et al. (2015), Young People Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEET): An Overview in ETF Partner Countries, European Training Foundation.
• Barrientos, A. (2019), “The role of social assistance in reducing poverty and inequality in Asia and the Pacific”, Asian Development Bank Sustainable Development Working Paper Series, No. 62.
• Baş, H. (2019), “Farklı Refah Rejimlerinde Genç İşsizliği ve Neet’nin Görünümü: İtalya, İngiltere Ve İsveç Örnekleri”, Hak İş Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 8(21), 125-148.
• Beaudreau, B.J. (1979), “Youth Unemployment and High School Dropouts in Providence: An Analysis of the Dropout-Unemployment Problem and the Job Training Programs Available for Dropouts”, Master’s Theses, University of Rhode Island.
• Blinova, T.V. & A.A. Vial’shina (2017), “Youth Not in the Educational System and Not Employed: An Evaluation of Rural-Urban Differences”, Sociological Research, 56(5), 348-362.
• Boender, C. (2021), The Relationship Between Child Labour And Child Marriage: A Discourse Analysis, UNICEF, Kathmandu.
• Boldeanu, F.T. & L. Constantinescu (2015), “The Main Determinants Affecting Economic Growth”, Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, 8(2), 329-338.
• Bosma, H. et al. (2014), “Low Control Beliefs in Relation to School Dropout and Poor Health: Findings from the SIODO Case-Control Study”, BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1-7.
• Bridgeland, J.M. et al. (2006), “The Silent Epidemic: Perspectives of High School Dropouts”, A Report by Civic Enterprises in association with Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle.
• Brzinsky-Fay, C. (2017), “The Interplay of Educational and Labour Market Institutions and Links to Relative Youth Unemployment”, Journal of European Social Policy, 27(4), 346-359.
• Candan, G.T. & V. Yurdadoğ (2017), “Türkiye’de Maliye Politikası Aracı Olarak Teşvik Politikaları”, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (27), 150-173.
• Caroleo, F.E. et al. (2020), “Being NEET in Europe Before and After The Economic Crisis: An Analysis of the Micro and Macro Determinants”, Social Indicators Research, 1-34.
• Castiglioni, R. (2000), “Welfare State Reform in Chile and Uruguay: Cross-Class Coalitions, Elite Ideology, and Veto Players”, Delivery at the 2000 Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, Miami.
• Ciccarelli, A. & E. Fabrizi (2017), “Family Background And Persistence in NEET Status”, Rivista Italiana di Economia, Demografia e Statistica, 71(1), 29-40.
• Cieslik, K. et al. (2022), “Young People Not in Employment, Education or Training (NEET) in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sustainable Development Target 8.6 Missed And Reset”, Journal of Youth Studies, 25(8), 1126-1147.
• Corbanese, V. & G. Rosas (2016), Rights @work For Youth: Decent Work For Young People, Youth Employment Programme, ILO: Geneva.
• Coskun, S. (2018), Young, Educated, Unemployed (No. crctr224_2019_134), University of Bonn and University of Mannheim, Germany.
• Cvecic, I. & D. Sokolic (2018), “Impact of Public Expenditure in Labour Market Policies and Other Selected Factors on Youth Unemployment”, Economic Research-Ekonomska İstraživanja, 31(1), 2060-2080.
• Çizel, R. vd. (2022), “Sosyal Bilim Araştırmalarında Bulanık Küme Nitel Karşılaştırmalı Analiz Yönteminin Kullanımı”, İstanbul University Journal of Sociology, 42(2), 549-588.
• Dell, K. & N. Nestoriak (2020), “Assessing the impact of new technologies on the labor market: Key constructs, gaps, and data collection strategies for the Bureau of Labor Statistics”, GALLUP, Contract No: GS-00F-0078M.
• Dericiler, Ö.Y. (2014), Sosyal Haklar ve İnsan Hakları Hukuku Çerçevesinde Devletin Yükümlülükleri, İstanbul: XII Levha Yayınları.
• Dinçer, H. et al. (2015), “Financial Problems of the Small-and Medium-Sized Enterprises and Solution Suggestions”, U. Akkucuk (ed.), Handbook of Research on Developing Sustainable Value in Economics, Finance, and Marketing (355-372), IGI Global.
• Dolanay, S. (2009), “Schumpeter Sisteminde Yenilikler, Ekonomik Gelişme ve Devresel Hareketler”, Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 1(2), 171-188.
• Drakaki, M. et al. (2014), “Who’s the Greek Neet? Neets’ Profile in Greece: Parameters, Trends And Common Characteristics of A Heterogeneous Group”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(6), 240-254.
• Duell, N. (2018), Employment and Entrepreneurship Under the Youth Guarantee: Experience from The Ground, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
• Duncan, B. (1965), “Dropouts and the Unemployed”, Journal of Political Economy, 73(2), 121-134.
• Elborgh-Woytek, M.K. et al. (2013), Women, Work, and The Economy: Macroeconomic Gains From Gender Equity, IMF.
• Elder, S. (2015), What Does NEETs Mean and Why is the Concept So Easily Misinterpreted?, ILO.
• Er, P.H. (2013), “Girişimcilik ve Yenilikçilik Kavramlarının İktisadi Düşüncedeki Yeri: Joseph A. Schumpeter”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (29), 75-85.
• Erdogan, E. et al. (2021), “NEET rural-urban ecosystems: The role of urban social innovation diffusion in supporting sustainable rural pathways to education, employment, and training”, Sustainability, 13(21), 12053.
• Esping-Andersen, G. (1990), The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Polity Press.
• Esping-Andersen, G. (1994), “After the Golden Age: The Future of the Welfare State in The New Global Order (No. 7)”, UNRISD Occasional Paper: World Summit for Social Development.
• Estevão, M.M.M. (2003), Do active labor market policies increase employment?, IMF.
• Eurofound (2012), NEETS - Young People not in Employment, Education or Training: Characteristics, Costs and Policy Responses in Europe, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
• Eurofound (2014), Mapping Youth Transitions in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
• Eurofound (2021a), Impact of COVID-19 On Young People in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
• Eurofound (2021b), NEETs, <https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/topic/neets>, 29.11.2021.
• Eurostat (2022), Government Expenditure On Education, <https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Government_expenditure_on_education>, 14. 01.2022.
• Feldstein, M. (2005), “Rethinking Social Insurance”, American Economic Review, 95(1), 1-24.
• Ferrera, M. (1996), “The’Southern Model’ of Welfare in Social Europe”, Journal of European Social Policy, 6(1), 17-37.
• Fine, D. et al. (2012), Africa at Work: Job creation and inclusive growth, McKinsey Global Institute, Boston.
• Finlay, I. et al. (2010), “Young People on the Margins: In Need of More Choices and More Chances in Twenty‐First Century Scotland”, British Educational Research Journal, 36(5), 851-867.
• Frey, D.F. & G. MacNaughton (2016), “A Human Rights Lens on Full Employment and Decent Work in the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda”, SAGE Open, 6(2), https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016649580.
• Fuller, S.H. (2020), Synergies for Youth: A Situation Analysis of The Intersection of Decent Work, Quality Education And Gender Equality in South-East Europe, UNESCO, Unesco Regional Bureau for Science and Culture in Europe, October.
• Furlong, A. (2006), “Not a Very NEET Solution: Representing Problematic Labour Market Transitions Among Early School-Leavers”, Work, Employment and Society, 20, 553-569.
• Gammarano, R. (2018), Decent Work and the Sustainable Development Goals: A Guidebook on SDG Labour Market Indicators, Department of Statistics, Geneva: ILO.
• Gammarano, R. (2019), Labour Market Access: A Persistent Challenge for Youth Around The World, International Labour Organization, Geneva.
• Gangl, M. (2001), “European Patterns of Labour Market Entry. A Dichotomy of Occupationalized vs. Non-occupationalized Systems?”, European Societies, 3(4), 471-494.
• Garman, E.C. et al. (2022), “Cash transfers and the mental health of young people: Evidence from South Africa’s child support grant”, Social Science & Medicine, 292, 114631.
• GEDI (2019), Global Entrepreneurship Index Data, <http://thegedi.org/2019-global-entrepreneurship-index/>, 29.10.2021.
• Green, F. (2013), Youth Entrepreneurship. A background paper for the OECD Centre for Entrepreneurship, SMEs and Local Development, OECD/LEED.
• Greve, B. (2007), “What Characterise the Nordic Welfare State Model”, Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 43-51.
• Guillén, A. (2006), “Defrosting the Spanish Welfare State: the Weight of Conservative and Corporatist Traditions”, Research Project on the Politics of Reform in Bismarckian Welfare States, May.
• Gümüş, İ. (2020), “Esping-Andersen ve Refah Rejimi Tartışmaları: Teorik Bir Değerlendirme”, Ekonomi Maliye İşletme Dergisi, 3(1), 101-117.
• Hatibu, S.H. & H.A. Hafidh (2021), “Youth Employment Creation Factors in the EA Countries Data and Policy Analysis”, Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 18(3), 13-29.
• Holte, B.H. (2018), “Counting and Meeting NEET Young People: Methodology, Perspective and Meaning in Research on Marginalized Youth”, Young, 26(1), 1-16.
• ILO (1999), “Decent Work”, International Labor Conference, 87th Session, Report of the Director General, Geneva.
• ILO (2019), Russia: Historical Development of Social Protection, ILO Social Protection Department.
• ILO (2020), Creating Decent Jobs for Youth, Generation Unlimited, Global Initiation on Decent Jobs for Youth.
• ILO (2021a), Decent Work And The 2030 Agenda For Sustainable Development, Department of Communication and Public Information.
• ILO (2021b), “Employment and Time Use”, ILOSTAT Database, 26.01.2022.
• ILOSTAT (2020), Education-Pays-Off-But-You-Have-To-Be-Patient, August 18, <https://ilostat.ilo.org/education-pays-off-but-you-have-to-be-patient/#:~:text=The%20share%20of%20people%20with,%25%20of%20high%2Dincome%20countries>, 07.12.2021.
• Isaacs, J. (2013), Unemployment from A Child’s Perspective, The Urban Institute, March.
• Istance, D. et al. (1994), Young People Not in Education, Training or Employment in South Glamorgan, Cardiff: South Glamorgan Training and Enterprise Council.
• Işığıçok, Ö. (2021), İstihdam ve İşsizlik, Bursa: Dora Basım-Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti.
• ITUC (2017), Modern slavery in company operation and supply chains, Business & Human Rights Resource Centre.
• Jongbloed, J. & J.F. Giret (2022), “Quality of Life of NEET Youth in Comparative Perspective: Subjective Well-Being During the Transition to Adulthood”, Journal of Youth Studies, 25(3), 321-343.
• Katrougalos, G.S. (1996), “The South European Welfare Model: the Greek Welfare State, in Search of an Identity”, Journal of European Social Policy, 6(1), 39-60.
• Khanna, G. (2015), “The importance of youth entrepreneurship and self-employment: Impact on developing countries”, International Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field, 1(5), 6-8.
• Ki-Moon, B. (2013), The Millennium Development Goals Report 2013, United Nations, 365-366.
• Klein, F. et al. (2021), Chilie Report: Sustainable Governance in the Context of the Covid-19 Crisis, SGI, <https://www.sgi-network.org/2020/>, 03.02.2022.
• Klimko, R. & E. Rievajova (2018), “Youth and the Labour Markets in the European Union”, in: Economic and Social Development: Book of Proceedings (330-336).
• Kurtz, M.J. (2002), “Understanding the Third World Welfare State After Neoliberalism: The Politics of Social Provision in Chile and Mexico”, Comparative Politics, 34(3), 293-313.
• Lelkes, O. (2000), “A Great Leap Towards Liberalism? The Hungarian Welfare State”, International Journal of Social Welfare, 9(2), 92-102.
• Lucke, R. (2008), Girişimcinin El Kitabı, Harvard Business School, (Çev. Ü. Şensoy), T. İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
• MacDonald, R. (2011), “Youth Transitions, Unemployment And Underemployment: Plus Ça Change, Plus C’est La Même Chose?”, Journal of Sociology, 47(4), 427-444.
• Maguire, S. (2013), “Will raising the participation age in England solve the NEET problem?”, Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 18(1-2), 61-76.
• Marelli, E. et al. (2013), “Youth and Total Unemployment Rate: The Impact of Policies and Institutions”, Rivista Internazionale Di Scienze Sociali, 121(1), 63-86.
• Mascherini, M. et al. (2012), NEETs: Young People Not in Employment, Education or Training: Characteristics, Costs and Policy Responses in Europe, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
• Maynou, L. et al. (2022), “Convergence and determinants of young people not in employment, education or training: An European regional analysis”, Economic Modelling, 110, 105808.
• Merlo, N. (2022), “How to guarantee decent work for young people and ensure the inclusion of NEETs through the proper elaboration of National Recovery Plans (own-initiative opinion)”, European Union European Economic and Social Committee Report.
• Millenky, M. (2016), “Connecting High School Dropouts to Employment and Education: An Impact Study of The National Guard Youth Challenge Program”, IZA Journal of Labor Policy, 5(1), 1-17.
• Mizintseva, M.F. & A. Sardarian (2018), “Human Resources As A Factor in Ensuring The Security of The Russian Federation Economic Development”, Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research (AEBMR), 39, 247-251.
• Nordenmark, M. et al. (2015), “Self-Rated Health Among Young Europeans Not in Employment, Education or Training - With A Focus on The Conventionally Unemployed and The Disengaged”, Society, Health & Vulnerability, 6(1), 25824.
• Ochsner, M. et al. (2018), Russian Versus European Welfare Attitudes: Evidence from the 2016 European Social Survey, London: European Social Survey.
• OECD (2008), The OECD, <https://www.oecd.org/newsroom/34011915.pdf>, 19.02.2022.
• OECD (2016), Unemployed, N.E.E.T. & Inactive, N.E.E.T., Society at a Glance 2016.
• OECD (2019), Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators, Doi: 10.1787/f8d7880d-en.
• OECD (2021a), Education at a glance: Transition from school to work, OECD Education Statistics.
• OECD (2021b), Public Spending on Education, Doi: 10.1787/f99b45d0-en.
• OECD (2021c), OECD, ortak ülkelerle çalışmaları güçlendirmek amacıyla İstanbul Küresel İlişkiler Merkezini açtı, <https://www.oecd.org/newsroom/oecd-ortak-ulkelerle-calsmalar-guclendirmek-amacyla-stanbul-kuresel-liskiler-merkezini-act.htm>, 20.12.2021.
• OECD (2021d), Who we are, <https://www.oecd.org/about/#:~:text=The%20Organisation%20for%20Economic%20Co,and%20well%2Dbeing%20for%20all>, 25.12.2021.
• OECD (2021e), Discover the OECD: Better Policies for Better Lives, <https://www.oecd.org/general/Key-information-about-the-OECD.pdf>, 27.12.2021.
• OECD (2021f), Convention on the OECD, <https://www.oecd.org/general/conventionontheorganisationforeconomicco-operationanddevelopment.htm>, 28.12.2021.
• OECD (2022a), Private spending on education (indicator), Doi: 10.1787/6e70bede-en.
• OECD (2022b), Public spending on education (indicator), Doi: 10.1787/f99b45d0-en.
• OECD (2023), Youth not in employment, education or training (NEET) (indicator), Doi: 10.1787/72d1033a-en.
• Puspa, A. & S. Syahrial (2017), The Students’ Responses on the Implementation of Student-Made Video Project in ESP Classroom to Train 21st Century Skills, Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), 110, 57-63.
• Quintano, C. et al. (2018), “The Determinants of Italian NEETs and the Effects of the Economic Crisis”, Genus, 74(5), 1-24.
• Ragin, C.C. (2008), Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets And Beyond, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Ragin, C.C. (2018), User’s Guide to Fuzzy-Set/Qualitative Comparative Analysis 3.0., Irvine, California: Department of Sociology, University of California.
• Ralston, K. et al. (2016), “Do Young People Not in Education, Employment or Training Experience Long-Term Occupational Scarring? A Longitudinal Analysis Over 20 Years of Follow-Up”, Contemporary Social Science, 11(2-3), 203-221.
• Ramsdal, G.H. et al. (2013), “Dropout and early unemployment”, International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 75-86.
• Ramsdal, G.H. et al. (2018), “Long-Term Dropout from School and Work and Mental Health in Young Adults in Norway: A Qualitative Interview-Based Study”, Cogent Psychology, 5(1), 1455365.
• Ratniece, D. & S. Cakula (2015), “Digital Opportunities for Student’s Motivational Enhancement”, Procedia Computer Science, 65, 754-760.
• Rees, A. & W. Gray (1982), “Family Effects in Youth Employment”, in: R.B. Freeman & D.A. Wise (eds.), The Youth Labor Market Problem: Its Nature, Causes, and Consequences (453-474), University of Chicago Press.
• Roy, A. (2010), Poverty Capital: Microfinance and The Making of Development, Routledge.
• Sarcan, C. (2017), Kamu Hizmetlerinin Sunumunda Kamu-Özel İşbirliği Modeli, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Düşünce Araştırma Geliştirme Vakfı (ESAGEV).
• Schneider, C.Q. & C. Wagemann (2012), Set-Theoretic Methods For The Social Sciences: A Guide To Qualitative Comparative Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Schwab, K. &, S. Zahidi (2020a), “How Countries are Performing on the Road to Recovery”, The Global Competitiveness Report, Special Edition, World Economic Forum.
• Schwab, K. &, S. Zahidi (2020b), The Future of Jobs Report 2020, World Economic Forum.
• SEU (1999), Bridging the gap: new opportunities for 16-18 year-olds not in education, employment or training, London: Social Exclusion Unit, CM4405.
• Shehu, E. & B. Nilsson (2014), Informal Employment Among Youth: Evidence From 20 School-To-Work Transition Surveys, Work4Youth Publication Series No. 8, Youth Employment Programme, Employment Policy Department, Geneva: ILO.
• Sotiropoulos, D.A. et al. (2021), Greece Report: Sustainable Governance in the Context of the Covid-19 Crisis, SGI, <https://www.sgi-network.org/2020/>,15.12.2021.
• Steinmetz, G. (1991), “Worker and the Welfare State in Imperial Germany”, International Labor and Working-Class History, 40, 18-46.
• Şahin, L. vd. (2021), “Türkiye’de ‘Ne Eğitimde, Ne İstihdamda Ne de Yetiştirmede’ (NEİY) Olan Gençler Profil Araştırması”, içinde: L. Şahin vd. (edt.), Türkiye’de Eğitim, İstihdam ve Yetiştirmede Olmayan Gençler, 2. Bölüm (125-249), İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınevi.
• Taymaz, E. (1998), Türkiye İmalat Sanayiinde Teknolojik Değişme ve İstihdam, <https://www.inovasyon.org/images/makaleler/pdf/ET.mm.istihdam.pdf>, 11.01.2022.
• Tireli, B. (2016), Girişimcilik ve Devlet Destekleri, Ankara Sanayi Odası Yayınları, Ankara.
• Tokatlıoğlu, M. & S. Şen (2019), “Kamu Hizmetlerinin Sunum ve Finansmanında Kamu Özel İşbirliği Modeli: Avrupa Birliği ve Türkiye”, International Journal of Public Finance, 4(2), 205-235.
• Toots, A. & T. Idnurm (2020), “Modernizing Voting in A Post-Transition Country: The Estonian Experience of Lowering The Voting Age”, in: J. Eichhorn & J. Bergh (eds.), Lowering the Voting Age to 16 Learning from Real Experiences Worldwide, Chapter 9 (167-187), Palgrave Macmillan.
• Toots, A. et al. (2020), Estonia Report, SGI, <https://www.sgi-network.org/2020/>, 21.02.2022.
• Toprak, D. (2015), “Uygulamada Ortaya Çıkan Farklı Refah Devleti Modelleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, SDÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21, 151-175.
• TÜBİTAK (2016), Özel Sektör; Arge, Yenilik ve Girişimcilik Destekleri, Teknoloji ve Yenilik Destek Programları Başkanlığı.
• UN (2021), “Youth Employment: Youth Perspectives on the Pursuit of Decent Work in Changing Times”, World Youth Report, Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
• UNESCO (2022), Government expenditure on education as % of GDP, <http://uis.unesco.org/node/3079574>, 22.02.2022.
• Uz, A. (2007), “Kamu-Özel Ortaklığı/Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Kavram ve Hukuksal Çerçeve”, Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(1-2), 1165-1182.
• Vancea, M. & M. Utzet (2018), “School-To-Work Transition: The Case of Spanish NEETs”, Journal of Youth Studies, 21(7), 869-887.
• Voßemer, J. & B. Schuck (2016), “Better Overeducated Than Unemployed? The Short-And Long-Term Effects of An Overeducated Labour Market Re-Entry”, European Sociological Review, 32(2), 251-265.
• Watson, I. (2013), “Bridges or Traps? Casualisation and Labour Market Transitions in Australia”, Journal of Industrial Relations, 55(1), 6-37.
• Weiss, J. et al. (2021), “There Is No Place Like Home! How Willing Are Young Adults to Move to Find a Job?”, Sustainability, 13(13), 7494.
• Wolbers, M.H. (2007), “Patterns of Labour Market Entry: A Comparative Perspective On School-To-Work Transitions in 11 European Countries”, Acta Sociologica, 50(3), 189-210.
• World Bank (2014), Tunisia: Breaking The Barriers to Youth Inclusion, <https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/tunisia/publication/tunisia-breaking-the-barriers-to-youth-inclusion>, 14.01.2022.
• World Bank (2017), Economic Impacts of Child Marriage: Work, Earnings and Household Welfare Brief, <https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/312761498512784050/pdf/116835-BRI-P151842-PUBLIC-EICM-Brief-WorkEarningsHousehold-PrintReady.pdf>, 19.01.2022.
• World Economic Forum (2021), “Global Gender Gap Report”, Insight Report.
• World Justice Project (2021), Rule of Law Index, <https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/global/2021/Fundamental Rights/table>, 24.11.2021.
• Yates, S. & M. Payne (2006), “Not so NEET? A Critique of the Use of ‘Neet’in Setting Targets for Interventions with Young People”, Journal of Youth Studies, 9(3), 329-344.
• Zerenler, M. vd. (2007), “Küresel Teknoloji, Araştırma-Geliştirme Ar-Ge ve Yenilik İlişkisi”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 17, 653-667.
• Zhang, G. et al. (2020), “Strategic mapping of youth unemployment with interval-valued intuitionistic hesitant fuzzy DEMATEL based on 2-tuple linguistic values”, IEEE Access, 8, 25706-25721.
• Zhartay, Z. et al. (2020), “Development of the Youth Entrepreneurship: Example of Kazakhstan”, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 8(1), 1190-1208.
• Zippel, C. & A. Sherman (2021), Bolstering Family Income Is Essential to Helping Children Emerge Successfully From the Current Crisis, The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.