Destinasyon Güvenlik İkliminin Risk Algısı Üzerine Etkisinde Yerel Halkın Tutum ve Davranışlarının Aracılık Rolü: İstanbul ve Antalya’daki Yabancı Turistler Üzerine Bir Araştırma

Year 2024, , 247 - 272, 28.10.2024

Alper Ateş , Halil Sunar

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2024.04.13

Abstract

Destinasyon güvenliği, turistlerin özellikle yabancı oldukları bir destinasyona seyahat kararı verirken dikkate aldıkları önemli faktörlerden biridir. Seyahatin doğası gereği riskli olması aynı zamanda turistlerin ziyaret etmeyi düşündükleri destinasyona seyahat öncesi algılarını etkilediği gibi seyahat sonrası algılarını etkilemektedir. Bu doğrultuda araştırmanın amacı, destinasyon güvenlik iklimi unsurlarının destinasyona yönelik genel risk algısı üzerine etkisinde yerel halkın ziyaretçilere karşı tutum ve davranışlarının aracılık rolünü ölçümlemektir. Literatürden yararlanılarak oluşturulan anket formu Türkiye’de en fazla turist ağırlayan iki şehir olan İstanbul ve Antalya’da uygulanmıştır. Anket formu Türkçe, İngilizce, Almanca ve Rusça dillerinde uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen hatalı ve eksik anket formları çıkartıldıktan sonra 1299 anket formundan oluşturulan veri seti ile analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Öncelikle oluşturulan ölçeğin geçerliliğini test etmek amacıyla açıklayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda oluşturulan hipotezleri test etmek amacıyla AMOS programı ile yapısal eşitlik modelinden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada sonuç olarak destinasyon güvenlik iklimi unsurlarının destinasyona yönelik genel risk algısı üzerine etkisinde yerel halkın ziyaretçilere karşı tutum ve davranışlarının kısmi aracılık etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir.

Keywords

Destinasyon Güvenlik İklimi, Seyahat Risk Algısı, Yerel Halk, Tutum ve Davranışlar

The Mediating Role of Local People's Attitudes and Behaviours on the Impact of Destination Safety Climate on Risk Perception: A Study on Foreign Tourists in İstanbul and Antalya

Abstract

Destination safety is one of the essential factors that tourists consider when making a travel decision, especially to a destination they are unfamiliar with. Many destinations' success depends on ensuring tourists feel safe and secure before and during their trips. The inherently risky nature of travel also affects tourists' pre-travel and post-travel perceptions of the destination they intend to visit. Accordingly, this study aims to measure the mediating role of local people's attitudes and behaviours toward visitors in the effect of destination safety climate elements on the general risk perception toward the destination. After reviewing existing research, we created a survey and administered it in Istanbul and Antalya, the top tourist destinations in Turkey. The survey was conducted in multiple languages, including Turkish, English, German, and Russian. After filtering out incorrect and incomplete responses, we analysed the dataset consisting of 1299 questionnaire forms. Initially, we used statistical analyses to ensure the scale's validity. We employed structural equation modelling with the AMOS software to examine the hypotheses based on the research objectives. The study found that how residents treat visitors plays a role in shaping tourists' overall perception of safety in a destination.

Keywords

Destination Safety Climate, Travel Risk Perception, Local People, Attitudes and Behaviors

References

• Abdalla, M.J. et al. (2023), “Promoting Face-To-Face Education under Perceived Risk via Learning Engagement and Positive Attitude: Perspectives from an Edu-Tourist Destination”, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 1-17.
• Abdollahzadeh, G. & A. Sharifzadeh (2014), “Rural residents' perceptions toward tourism development: A study from Iran”, International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(2), 126-136.
• Akkılıç, M.E. & İ. Varol (2015), “Turist Algılarının Davranışsal Niyetler Üzerindeki Etkisi: Edremit Körfezi Örneği”, International Review of Economics and Management, 3(1), 14-38.
• Alpar, R. (2018), Spor, Sağlık ve Eğitim Bilimlerinden Örneklerle Uygulamalı İstatistik ve Geçerlik- Güvenirlik, (5. Baskı), Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.
• Alrwajfah, M.M. et al. (2019), “Residents’ perceptions and satisfaction toward tourism development: A case study of Petra Region, Jordan”, Sustainability, 11(7), 1907.
• Altindag, D.T. (2014), “Crime and international tourism”, Journal of Labor Research, 35, 1-14.
• Altunışık, R. et al. (2012), Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Sakarya: Sakarya Yayıncılık.
• Amaro, D. et al. (2023), “Tourism Safety and Security: A Bibliometric Approach”, in: C. Seabra & M.E. Korstanje, (eds.), Safety and Tourism (Tourism Security-Safety and Post Conflict Destinations) (11-30), Leeds: Emerald Publishing, Limited.
• Araña, J.E. & C.J. León (2008), “The impact of terrorism on tourism demand”, Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), 299-315.
• Baker, D.M.A. (2014), “The effects of terrorism on the travel and tourism industry”, International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 2(1), 58-67.
• Bal, L. (2018), “Çalışanların Tükenmişlik Düzeyleri ve İşe Bağlılıkları Arasındaki İlişkinin Yapısal Eşitlik Modeliyle İncelenmesi”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir.
• Bang, N.V. et al. (2020), “Revisit Intention and Satisfaction: The Role of Destination Image, Perceived Risk, and Cultural Contact”, Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), 1-20.
• Batra, A. (2008), “Foreign Tourists’ Perception towards Personal Safety and Potential Crime while Visiting Bangkok”, Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 19(1), 89-101.
• Bauer, R.A. (1960), “Consumer behavior as risk taking”, in: Proceedings of the 43rd National Conference of the American Marketing Association (389-398, Chicago, Illinois.
• Bayram, N. (2013), Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesine Giriş, Bursa: Ezgi Yayıncılık.
• Brent R.W. & Y. Jiang (2019), “A Review of Research on Tourism Risk, Crisis and Disaster Management: Launching The Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Tourism Risk, Crisis and Disaster Management”, Annals of Tourism Research, 79, 102812.
• Buda, D.M. (2016), “Tourism in conflict areas: Complex entanglements in Jordan”, Journal of Travel Research, 55(7), 835-846.
• Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2015), Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı (21. Baskı), Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
• Cañizares, S.M.S. et al. (2014), “Residents’ attitudes towards the impact of tourism development in Cape Verde”, Tourism & Management Studies, 10(1), 87-96.
• Chan, C.S. (2021), “Developing a Conceptual Model for the Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Changing Tourism Risk Perception”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 9824.
• Chew, E.Y.T. & S.A. Jahari (2014), “Destination Image as a Mediator between Perceived Risks and Revisit Intention: A Case of Post-Disaster Japan”, Tourism Management, 40, 382-393.
• Choocharukul, K. & K. Sriroongvikrai (2017), “Road safety awareness and comprehension of road signs from international tourist’s perspectives: a case study of Thailand”, Transportation Research Procedia, 25, 4518-4528.
• Collins, M.D. & M. Millar (2019), “Tourists’ Perceptions of Destination Image, Safety, and Aggressive Street Behavior”, International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 22(3), 251-268.
• Cox, D.F. & S.U. Rich (1964), “Perceived Risk and Consumer Decision-Making-The Case of Telephone Shopping”, Journal of Marketing Research, 1(4), 32-39.
• Cui, F. et al. (2016), “An Overview of Tourism Risk Perception”, Natural Hazards, 82, 643-658.
• Çetinkaya, Ö. et al. (2020), “COVID-19 Sürecinde Turistik Seyahat Risk Algısı ve Hijyen-Güvenlik Algısının Değerlendirilmesi”, Tourism and Recreation, 2(2), 78-83.
• Çetinsöz, B. & Z. Ege (2012), “Turistlerin Demografik Özelliklerine Göre Risk Azaltma Stratejileri: Alanya Örneği”, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23(2), 159-172.
• Çobaner, A.A. (2021), “COVID-19 Sürecinde Değişen Sağlik/Risk Algisi ve Medya Tüketim Pratikleri”, in: G. Çalışır & E. Diker (eds), COVID-19 Sürecinde İletişimin Değişen Yüzü (35-61), Konya: Eğitim Yayınevi.
• Darley, W.K. & R.E. Smith (1995), “Gender Differences in Information Processing Strategies: An Empirical Test of the Selectivity Model in Advertising Response”, Journal of Advertising, 24(1), 41-56.
• Elshaer, A.M. et al. (2023), “Antecedents of Employees’ Perception and Attitude to Risks: The Experience of Egyptian Tourism and Hospitality Industry”, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 24(3), 330-358.
• Enders, W. & T. Sandler (2006), The Political Economy of Terrorism, 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Eusébio, C. et al. (2018), “Place attachment, host–tourist interactions, and residents’ attitudes towards tourism development: The case of Boa Vista Island in Cape Verde”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(6), 890-909.
• Fan, D.X. et al. (2017), “Tourist typology in social contact: An addition to existing theories”, Tourism Management, 60, 357-366.
• Floyd, M.F. et al. (2004), “The Effect of Risk Perceptions on Intentions to Travel in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 15(2-3), 19-38.
• Forsythe, S.M. & B. Shi (2003), “Consumer Patronage and Risk Perceptions in Internet Shopping”, Journal of Business Research, 56(11), 867-875.
• Fuchs, G. & A. Reichel (2006), “Tourist Destination Risk Perception: The case of Israel”, Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 14(2), 83-108.
• Fuchs, G. & A. Reichel (2011), “An Exploratory Inquiry into Destination Risk Perceptions and Risk Reduction Strategies of First Time vs. Repeat Visitors to a Highly Volatile Destination”, Tourism Management, 32(2), 266-276.
• García, F.A. et al. (2015), “Resident's attitudes towards the impacts of tourism”, Tourism Management Perspectives, 13, 33-40.
• Gavurova, B. et al. (2023), “The relationship between destination image and destination safety during technological and social changes COVID-19 pandemic”, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 191, 1-11.
• George, J.F. (2002), “Influences on the Intent to Make Internet Purchases”, Internet Research, 12(2), 165-180.
• George, R. (2009), “Visitors’ perceptions of crime-safety and attitudes towards risk: The case of Table Mountain National Park, Cape Town”, Tourism Management, 31, 806-815.
• Gössling, S. et al. (2020), “Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid assessment of COVID-19”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(1), 1-20.
• Hadinejad, A.D. et al. (2019), “Residents’ attitudes to tourism: A review”, Tourism Review, 74(2), 150-165.
• Hall, C.M. et al. (2004), “Security and Tourism”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 15(2-3), 1-18.
• Hasan, Md.K. et al. (2017), “Tourist Risk Perceptions and Revisit Intention: A Critical Review of Literature”, Cogent Business & Management, 4(1), 1-21.
• Hassan, T.H. & A.E. Salem (2021), “The importance of safety and security measures at Sharm El Sheikh Airport and their impact on travel decisions after restarting aviation during the COVID-19 outbreak”, Sustainability, 13(9), 5216.
• Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2020), “The “war over tourism”: Challenges to sustainable tourism in the tourism academy after COVID-19”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(4), 551-569.
• Hua, N. et al. (2020), “Crime research in hospitality and tourism”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(3), 1299-1323.
• Hüsser, A.P. et al. (2023), “Tourists’ Preventive Travel Behaviour During COVID-19: The Mediating Role of Attitudes Towards Applying Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) While Travelling”, Current Issues in Tourism, 27(1), 127-141.
• Ivanov, S. et al. (2017), “Impacts of political instability on the tourism industry in Ukraine”, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 9(1), 100-127.
• Jamal, T. & C. Budke (2020), “Tourism in a world with pandemics: local-global responsibility and action”, Journal of Tourism Futures, 6(2), 181-188.
• Jensen, S. & G.T. Svendsen (2016), “Social trust, safety and the choice of tourist destination”, Business and Management Horizons, 4(1), 1-9.
• Karamustafa, K. & E. Erbaş (2011), “Satın Alma Karar Sürecinde Algılanan Risk: Paket Turlara Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, Tüketici ve Tüketim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3(1), 103-144.
• Karamustafa, K. et al. (2013), “Risk Perceptions of a Mixed Image Destination: The Case of Turkey's First-Time versus Repeat Leisure Visitors”, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22(3), 243-268.
• Khan, M.J. et al. (2019), “Intention to Visit India among Potential Travellers: Role of Travel Motivation, Perceived Travel Risks and Travel Constraints”, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 19(3), 351-367.
• Khasawneh, M.S. & A.M. Alfandi (2019), “Determining Behaviour Intentions from the Overall Destination Image and Risk Perception”, Tourism and Hospitality Management, 25(2), 355-375.
• Kock, F. et al. (2019), “Tourism ethnocentrism and its effects on tourist and resident behavior”, Journal of Travel Research, 58(3), 427-439.
• Kodaş, B. (2022a), “Yerli Turistlerin COVID-19 Döneminde Algıladıkları Riskin Seyahat Endişeleri ve Seyahat Etme Niyetlerine Etkisi”, Türk Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(3), 699-712.
• Kodaş, D. (2022b), “Yerli Turistlerin COVID-19 Korkusunun ve Seyahat Endişelerinin Seyahat Etme Niyetlerine Etkisi”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Issues, 4(1), 29-40.
• Konak, S. (2022), “The Impact of Tourist’s Hygiene-Safety Perception on Their Intention to Travel during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey”, Journal of Tourism Theory and Research, 8(1), 5-13.
• Korgaonkar, P.K. & L.D. Wolin (1999), “A Multivariate Analysis of Web Usage”, Journal of Advertising Research, 39(2), 53-53.
• Lai, H.K. et al. (2021), “Quality of life and emotional solidarity in residents’ attitudes toward tourists: The case of Macau”, Journal of Travel Research, 60(5), 1123-1139.
• Lee, C.C. & M.P. Chen (2021), “Do Country Risks Matter for Tourism Development? International Evidence”, Journal of Travel Research, 60(7), 1445-1468.
• Lepp, A. & H. Gibson (2003), “Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism”, Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 606-624.
• Lepp, A. (2007), “Residents’ attitudes towards tourism in Bigodi village, Uganda”, Tourism Management, 28(3), 876-885.
• Li, D. et al. (2022), “Evaluation of tourism food safety and quality with neural networks”, Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2022(1), 1-12.
• Lim, N. (2003), “Consumers’ Perceived Risk: Sources versus Consequences”, Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 2(3), 216-228.
• Liu, B. et al. (2016), “Source market perceptions: How risky is Jordan to travel to?”, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5(4), 294-304.
• Liu, L.W. et al. (2023), “Does Virtual Tourism Influence Tourist Visit Intention on Actual Attraction? A Study from Tourist Behavior in Indonesia”, Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1), 1-25.
• Ma, H. et al. (2020), “Safety or travel: Which is more important? The impact of disaster events on tourism”, Sustainability, 12(7), 1-12.
• Martín, H.S. et al. (2018), “Residents’ attitudes and behavioural support for tourism in host communities”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(2), 231-243.
• Merriam-Webster (2023), An American Dictionary of the English Language, <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/risk>, 23.12.2023.
• Meydan, C.H. & H. Şeşen (2015), Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi AMOS Uygulamaları, 2. Baskı, Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.
• Mitchell, V.W. (1999), “Consumer Perceived Risk: Conceptualisations and Models”, European Journal of Marketing, 33(1/2), 163-195.
• Miyazaki, A.D. & A. Fernandez (2001), “Consumer Perceptions of Privacy and Security Risks for Online Shopping”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 35(1), 27-44.
• Muresan, I.C. et al. (2016), “Residents’ attitude toward sustainable rural tourism development”, Sustainability, 8(1), 100, 1-14.
• Nazir, M.U. et al. (2021), “Destination Image's Mediating Role between Perceived Risks, Perceived Constraints and Behavioral Intention”, Heliyon, 7(7), 1-11.
• Nazneen, S. et al. (2020), “COVID-19 Crises and Tourist Travel Risk Perceptions”, SSRN Electronic Journal, 3592321.
• Nguyen Viet, B. et al. (2020), “Revisit Intention and Satisfaction: The Role of Destination Image, Perceived Risk, and Cultural Contact”, Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), 1-20.
• Özer, L. & S. Gülpınar (2005), “Hizmet Sektöründe Tüketicilerin Algıladıkları Riskler: Hava Yolları Sektöründe Bir Araştırma”, Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (1), 49-63.
• Park, D.B. et al. (2014), “Rural residents’ attitudes to tourism and the moderating effects of social capital”, Tourism Geographies, 17(1), 112-133.
• Passafaro, P. (2020), “Attitudes and tourists’ sustainable behavior: An overview of the literature and discussion of some theoretical and methodological issues”, Journal of Travel Research, 59(4), 579-601.
• Pavlakovič, B. et al. (2018), “The Effects of Media Displays Regarding Terrorist Attacks on Attitudes Concerning Tourist Destination Planning”, Original Scientific Paper, 51(3-4), 128-141.
• Perpiña, L. et al. (2021), “Image and Risk Perceptions: an Integrated Approach”, Current Issues in Tourism, 24(3), 367-384.
• Phuc, H.N. & H.M. Nguyen (2023), “The importance of collaboration and emotional solidarity in residents’ support for sustainable urban tourism: Case study Ho Chi Minh City”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(2), 245-264.
• Pires, G. et al. (2004), “Influences on the Perceived Risk of Purchasing Online”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour: An International Research Review, 4(2), 118-131.
• Pizam, A. & Y. Mansfeld (2006), “Toward a Theory of Tourism Security”, in: Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (eds), Tourism, Security and Safety (1-28), Oxford: Elsevier.
• Qi, C.X. et al. (2009), “Perceptions of Risk and Travel Intentions: The Case of China and the Beijing Olympic Games”, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(1), 43-67.
• Quintal, V.A. et al. (2010), “Tourists' Information Search: The Differential Impact of Risk and Uncertainty Avoidance”, International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 321-333.
• Ramkissoon, H. (2020), “Perceived social impacts of tourism and quality-of-life: a new conceptual model”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(2), 442-459.
• Rasoolimanesh, S.M. & S. Seyfi (2021), “Residents’ perceptions and attitudes towards tourism development: a perspective article”, Tourism Review, 76(1), 51-57.
• Rasoolimanesh, S.M. et al. (2017), “Urban vs. rural destinations: residents’ perceptions, community participation and support for tourism development”, Tourism Management, 60, 147-158.
• Rasoolimanesh, S.M. et al. (2019), “Does living in the vicinity of heritage tourism sites influence residents’ perceptions and attitudes?”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(9), 1295-1317.
• Reisinger, Y. & F. Mavondo (2005), “Travel Anxiety and Intentions to Travel Internationally: Implications of Travel Risk Perception”, Journal of Travel Research, 43, 212-225.
• Ritchie, B.W. & Y. Jiang (2019), “A review of research on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management”, Annals of Tourism Research, 79, 1-15.
• Roehl, W. & D. Fesenmaier (1992), “Risk Perceptions and Pleasure Travel: An Exploratory Analysis”, Journal of Travel Research, 2(4), 17-26.
• Roselius, T. (1971), “Consumer Rankings of Risk Reduction Methods’”, Journal of Marketing, 35 (January), 56-61.
• Salisbury, W.D. et al. (2001), “Perceived Security and World Wide Web Purchase Intention”, Industrial Management & Data Systems, 101(4), 165-177.
• Sánchez-Cañizares, S.M. et al. (2021), “Impact of the Perceived Risk from COVID-19 on Intention to Travel”, Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7), 970-984.
• Savaşçı, U. & H.M. Yıldırım (2021), “Destinasyon İmajı ve Algılanan Riskin, Davranışsal Niyete Etkisi: Bodrum Örneği”, GSI Journals Serie A: Advancements in Tourism Recreation and Sports Sciences, 4(2), 115-134.
• Schermelleh-Engel, K. et al. (2003), “Evaluating the Fit of Structural Equation Models: Tests of Significance and Descriptive Goodness-Of-Fit Measures”, Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23-74.
• Schiffman, L.G. & L.L. Kanuk (2000), Consumer Behavior, Wisconsin: Prentice Hall.
• Šegota, T. et al. (2022), “Resident perceptions and responses to tourism: individual vs community level impacts”, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(2), 340-363.
• Sharma, A.K. et al. (2020), “Perceived safety and security concerns among tourists in Thamel-a tourism hub in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal”, Indonesian Journal of Tourism and Leisure, 1(2), 92-102.
• Sharpley, R. (2014), “Host perceptions of tourism: A review of the research”, Tourism Management, 42, 37-49.
• Shen K. et al. (2022), “How Residents’ Attitudes to Tourists and Tourism Affect Their Pro-tourism Behaviours: The Moderating Role of Chinese Traditionality”, Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-13.
• Shin, H. et al. (2022), “A Comparative Analysis of Domestic Travel Intentions and Actual Travel Behaviors in COVID-19: Focused on Attitude-Behavioral Gap”, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 27(11), 1193-1206.
• Singh, R. & L.K. Jena (2023), “Police service in urban destination points: does it promote urban destination advocacy among tourists?”, International Journal of Tourism Cities, 9(4), 1079-1096.
• Singleton, P.A. & L. Wang (2014), “Safety and Security in Discretionary Travel Decision Making: Focus on Active Travel Mode and Destination Choice”, Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2430(1), 47-58.
• Slevitch, L. & A. Sharma (2008), “Management of Perceived Risk in the Context of Destination Choice”, International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration, 9(1), 85-103.
• Slovic, P. (1987), “Perception of Risk”, Science, 236(4799), 280-285.
• Sohn, H.K. et al. (2016), “Relationship between Perceived Risk, Evaluation, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intention: A Case of Local-Festival Visitors”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 33(1), 28-45.
• Sönmez, S.F. & A.R. Graefe (1998), “Determining Future Travel Behavior from Past Travel Experience and Perceptions of Risk and Safety”, Journal of Travel Research, 37(2), 172-177.
• Stone, R.N. & F.W. Winter (1987), “Risk: Is it Still Uncertainty Times Consequences”, in: Proceedings of the American Marketing Association Vol. 1 (261-265), Chicago, IL: Winter Educators Conference.
• Tan, M. & T.S. Teo (2000), “Factors Influencing the Adoption of Internet Banking”, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 1(1), 5.
• Taylor, J.W. (1974), “The Role of Risk in Consumer Behavior: A Comprehensive and Operational Theory of Risk Taking in Consumer Behavior”, Journal of Marketing, 38(2), 54-60.
• Temeloğlu, E. (2015), “Tüketicilerin Kişilik Özellikleri, Risk Algıları ve Yeniden Satın Alma Davranışları Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi: Otel İşletmelerinde Bir Araştırma”, İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(2), 157-179.
• Teng, C.C. et al. (2023), “COVID-19 Perceived Risk, Travel Risk Perceptions and Hotel Staying Intention: Hotel Hygiene and Safety Practices as a Moderator”, Sustainability, 15(17), 1-17.
• Thyne, M. et al. (2022), “Social distance between residents and tourists explained by residents’ attitudes concerning tourism”, Journal of Travel Research, 61(1), 150-169.
• Toker, A. & İ. Kızılırmak (2023), “Seyahat Risk Algısı ve Seyahat Güvenliği Davranışlarının Kovid-19 Krizi Bağlamında İncelenmesi”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Research, 22(22), 32-61.
• Toker, A. & O. Emir (2023), “Safety and security research in tourism: A bibliometric mapping”, European Journal of Tourism Research, 34, 3402.
• Tse, S. & V.W.S. Tung (2022), “Measuring the Valence and Intensity of Residents’ Behaviors in Host-Tourist Interactions: Implications for Destination Image and Destination Competitiveness”, Journal of Travel Research, 61(3), 565-580.
• Türkmen, E. & M.O. İlban (2018), “Yurt Dışına Çıkma Niyeti Olan Türk Turistlerin Algıladıkları Risklerin Destinasyon Seçimine ve Satın Alma Niyetine Olan Etkisinin Belirlenmesi”, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 11(60), 1153-1171.
• Ueltschy, L.C. et al. (2004), “A Cross‐National Study of Perceived Consumer Risk towards Online (Internet) Purchasing”, Multinational Business Review, 12(2), 59-82.
• Ünal, A. (2020), “Yerli Turistlerin Algıladıkları Seyahat Risklerinin Destinasyon Satın Alma Süreçlerine Etkilerinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24, 403-424.
• Walpole, M.J. & H.J. Goodwin (2001), “Local attitudes towards conservation and tourism around Komodo National Park, Indonesia”, Environmental Conservation, 28(2), 160-166.
• Wan, Z. et al. (2022), “Modification and validation of the travel safety attitude scale (TSAS) in international tourism: a reflective-formative approach”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 5(5), 1002-1021.
• Wang, Y. & R.E. Pfister (2008), “Residents' attitudes toward tourism and perceived personal benefits in a rural community”, Journal of Travel Research, 47(1), 84-93.
• Willett, A.H. (1951), The Economic Theory of Risk and Insurance, University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Williams, A. (2002), Understanding the Hospitality Consumer, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
• Williams, A. (2006), “Tourism and Hospitality Marketing: Fantasy, Feeling and Fun”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(6), 482-495.
• Woosnam, K.M. et al. (2015), “Tourists' Perceived Safety through Emotional Solidarity with Residents in Two Mexico-United States Border Regions”, Tourism Management, 46, 263-273.
• Xie, C. et al. (2021), “Developing a Scale to Measure Tourist Perceived Safety”, Journal of Travel Research, 60(6), 1232-1251.
• Xu, J.B. et al. (2024), “Tourists’ perceptions of the competitive destination”, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 13567667241236490.
• Yang, E.C.L. et al. (2015), “Tourists’ Risk Perception of Risky Destinations: The Case of Sabah’s Eastern Coast”, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 15(3), 206-221.
• Yang, H. & H. Lee. (2022), “How Does The Perceived Physical Risk of COVID-19 Affect Sharing Economy Services?”, Current Issues in Tourism, 25(7), 1046-1062.
• Yas, H.K. et al. (2020), “The positive role of the tourism industry for Dubai city in the United Arab Emirates”, Contemporary Economics, 14(4), 604-619.
• Yen, C.H. et al. (2021), “Destination Safety Climate: Scale Development and Validation”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 38(3), 303-315.
• Zhang, J. et al. (2020), “Responding to a major global crisis: the effects of hotel safety leadership on employee safety behavior during COVID-19”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(11), 3365-3389.
• Zhang, S. et al. (2023), “The COVID-19 Pandemic and Tourists’ Risk Perceptions: Tourism Policies’ Mediating Role in Sustainable and Resilient Recovery in the New Normal”, Sustainability, 15(2), 1-20.
• Zou, Y. & F. Meng (2020), “Chinese Tourists’ Sense of Safety: Perceptions of Expected and Experienced Destination Safety”, Current Issues in Tourism, 23(15), 1886-1899.
• Zsarnoczky, M.B. et al. (2019), “Food safety challenges in the tourism processes”, Rural Sustainability Research, 41(336), 26-31.