Research Article

Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing

Volume: 15 Number: 3 September 30, 2026
EN TR

Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing

Abstract

This study compares linear regression and exponential smoothing based on time-series methods for the estimation of long term populations at national and regional levels. The UN World Population Prospects provide annual population figures for the time period 1950-2023. The countries included in this analysis are Asia, Africa, Europe, the U.S.A., and Turkey. The results of linear regression (LR) show that it has a very good explanatory value in regions that have shown relatively stable population development (Asia, the U.S.A., and Turkey, R² > 0.99). On the other hand, the explanatory value of LR is less good in regions that have shown nonlinear population development, especially in Africa (R² = 0.946) and Europe (R² = 0.877), as evidenced by large forecast errors (up to 6.99 × 10⁹ MSE). In comparison to LR, the exponential smoothing (ES) model was able to produce better forecasts for all of the analyzed regions and reached R² values greater than 0.9999; furthermore, it produced smaller forecast errors (for example, MSE = 4.10 × 10⁵ for Africa and MSE = 2.50 × 10⁴ for Turkey). Based on these findings, it can be expected that the population will continue to grow in Africa (approximately 1.98 billion people) and in Asia (approximately 5.67 billion people) until 2043; however, there will be moderate population increases in Turkey (approximately 98 million people) and in the U.S.A. (approximately 360 million people); and there will be no significant changes in the European population (approximately 700 million people).

Keywords

References

  1. Vanella P, Wilke CB, Deschermeier P. An Overview of Population Projections—Methodological Concepts, International Data Availability, and Use Cases. Forecasting. 2020; 2(3): 346–363.
  2. Land KC. Methods for national population forecasts: a review. Journal of the American Statistical Association. 1986; 81(396): 888–901.
  3. Wilson T, Grossman I, Alexander M, Rees P, Temple J. Methods for Small Area Population Forecasts: State-of-the-Art and Research Needs. Population Research and Policy Review. 2022;41(3):865–898. doi:10.1007/s11113-021-09671-6.
  4. Makridakis S, Assimakopoulos V, Spiliotis E. Statistical and Machine Learning forecasting methods: Concerns and ways forward. PLOS ONE. 2018; 13(3): e0194889.
  5. Şahinarslan FV, Tekin AT, Çebi F. Application of machine learning algorithms for population forecasting. International Journal of Data Science. 2021;6(4):257–270. DOI: 10.1504/IJDS.2021.122770.
  6. Grossman I, Bandara K, Wilson T, Kirley M. Can machine learning improve small area population forecasts? A forecast combination approach. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems. 2022;95:101806. DOI: 10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2022.101806.
  7. Alghanmi N, Alotaibi R, Alshammari S, Mahmood A. Population Fusion Transformer for Subnational Population Forecasting. International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems. 2024;17:26. doi:10.1007/s44196-024-00413-y.
  8. Raftery AE, Ševčíková H. Probabilistic population forecasting: Short to very long-term. International Journal of Forecasting. 2023;39(1):73–97. doi:10.1016/j.ijforecast.2021.09.001.

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Information Modelling, Management and Ontologies, Information Systems (Other)

Journal Section

Research Article

Publication Date

September 30, 2026

Submission Date

February 16, 2026

Acceptance Date

September 3, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 15 Number: 3

APA
Kayabaş, A. (2026). Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing. Turkish Journal of Nature and Science, 15(3), 214-220. https://doi.org/10.46810/tdfd.1890387
AMA
1.Kayabaş A. Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing. TJNS. 2026;15(3):214-220. doi:10.46810/tdfd.1890387
Chicago
Kayabaş, Ayla. 2026. “Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing”. Turkish Journal of Nature and Science 15 (3): 214-20. https://doi.org/10.46810/tdfd.1890387.
EndNote
Kayabaş A (September 1, 2026) Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing. Turkish Journal of Nature and Science 15 3 214–220.
IEEE
[1]A. Kayabaş, “Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing”, TJNS, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 214–220, Sept. 2026, doi: 10.46810/tdfd.1890387.
ISNAD
Kayabaş, Ayla. “Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing”. Turkish Journal of Nature and Science 15/3 (September 1, 2026): 214-220. https://doi.org/10.46810/tdfd.1890387.
JAMA
1.Kayabaş A. Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing. TJNS. 2026;15:214–220.
MLA
Kayabaş, Ayla. “Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing”. Turkish Journal of Nature and Science, vol. 15, no. 3, Sept. 2026, pp. 214-20, doi:10.46810/tdfd.1890387.
Vancouver
1.Ayla Kayabaş. Time Series–Based Population Forecasting: A Comparative Analysis of Linear Regression and Exponential Smoothing. TJNS. 2026 Sep. 1;15(3):214-20. doi:10.46810/tdfd.1890387