İkincil Travmatik Stres ile Strese Bağlı Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkide Kendi Kendine Stres Yapmanın Rolü

Yıl 2024, , 988 - 1019, 30.08.2024

Sema Yazıcı-kabadayı

https://doi.org/10.37217/tebd.1420121

Öz

Bu araştırmada sosyal medya kullanıcısı genç yetişkinlerin ikincil travmatik stres düzeyleri ile strese bağlı büyüme deneyimleri arasındaki ilişkide kendi kendine stres yapmanın aracı rolü incelenmiştir. Araştırmaya yaş ortalaması 21,39 olan 79’u erkek, 225’i kadın olmak üzere 304 katılımcı dâhil edilmiştir. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak Sosyal Medya Kullanıcıları İçin İkincil Travmatik Stres Ölçeği, Kendi Kendine Stres Yapma Ölçeği ve Strese Bağlı Büyüme Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler SPSS ve JASP paket programları kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde t-testi, korelasyon ve aracılık testinden yararlanılmıştır. Bulgular ikincil travmatik stres ile kendi kendine stres yapma puanları açısından kadın ve erkekler arasında anlamlı bir farklılık olduğunu göstermiştir. Ayrıca kendi kendine stres yapma ve ikincil travmatik stres ile strese bağlı büyüme arasında negatif yönde anlamlı ilişkiler bulunurken kendi kendine stres yapma ile ikincil travmatik stres arasında pozitif yönlü anlamlı ilişkilerin olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Son olarak ikincil travmatik stres ile strese bağlı büyüme arasındaki ilişkide kendi kendine stres yapmanın aracı rolü olduğu görülmüştür. Bulgular alanyazın doğrultusunda tartışılmış olup sonraki araştırmalar için çeşitli öneriler sunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

İkincil travmatik stres, Kendi kendine stres yapma, Strese bağlı büyüme, Sosyal medya kullanıcıları

The Role of Self-Generated Stress in the Relationship Between Secondary Traumatic Stress and Stress-Related Growth

Öz

This research examined the mediating role of self-generated stress in the relationship between secondary traumatic stress levels and stress-related growth experiences of young adults who were social media users. The study consisted of 304 participants, 79 of whom were male and 225 of whom were female, with an average age of 21.39 years. Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale for Social Media Users, Self-Generetad Stress Scale and Stress-Related Growth Scale were used as data collection tools. The data obtained were analyzed using SPSS and JASP package programs. In the analysis of the data, t-test, correlation and mediation test were used. The findings showed that there was a significant difference between men and women in terms of secondary traumatic stress and self-generated stress scores. In addition, while there were significant negative relationships between self-generated stress and secondary traumatic stress and stress-related growth, there were significant positive relationships between self-generated stress and secondary traumatic stress. Finally, it was observed that self-generated stress played a mediating role in the relationship between secondary traumatic stress and stress-related growth. The findings were discussed in line with the literature and various suggestions were presented for further research.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Secondary traumatic stress, Self-generated stress, Stress-related growth, Social media users

Kaynakça

• Aldwin, C. M., Sutton, K. J., & Lachman, M. (1996). The development of coping resources inadulthood. Journal of Personality, 64(4), 837-871. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00946.x
• Alsharawy, A., Spoon, R., Smith, A., & Ball, S. (2021). Gender differences in fear and risk perception during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 689467. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689467
• Arpawong, T. E., Richeimer, S. H., Weinstein, F., Elghamrawy, A., & Milam, J. E. (2013). Posttraumatic growth, quality of life, and treatment symptoms among cancer chemotherapy outpatients. Health Psychology, 32(4), 397-408. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028223
• Auerbach, R. P., Richardt, S., Kertz, S., & Eberhart, N. K. (2012). Cognitive vulnerability, stress generation, and anxiety: Symptom clusters and gender differences. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 5(1), 50-66. https://doi.org/10.1521/ijct.2012.5.1.50
• Baird, K. & Kracen, A. C. (2006). Vicarious traumatization and secondary traumatic stress: A research synthesis. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 19(2), 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070600811899
• Balcı-Çelik, S. & Altınışık, M. S. (2021). Adaptation of Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale to Turkish for social media users: Reliability and validity study. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 11(60), 1-12.
• Barskova, T. & Oesterreich, R. (2009). Post-traumatic growth in people living with a serious medical condition and its relations to physical and mental health: A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(21), 1709-1733. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902738441
• Baum, N. (2016). Secondary traumatization in mental health professionals: A systematic review of gender findings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 221-235. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584357
• Beck, C. T. (2011). Secondary traumatic stress in nurses: A systematic review. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 25(1), 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2010.05.005
• Bensimon, M. (2012). Elaboration on the association between trauma, PTSD and posttraumatic growth: The role of trait resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(7), 782-787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.011
• Bernardi, J., Engelbrecht, A., & Jobson, L. (2019). The impact of culture on cognitive appraisals: Implications for the development, maintenance, and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychologist, 23(2), 91-102. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12161
• Bjuggren, C. M. & Elert, N. (2019). Gender differences in optimism. Applied Economics, 51(47), 5160-5173. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2019.1610714
• Boals, A. & Banks, J. B. (2012). Effects of traumatic stress and perceived stress on everyday cognitive functioning. Cognition & Emotion, 26(7), 1335-1343. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.651100
• Bouchard, L. C. & Shih, J. H. (2013). Gender differences in stress generation: Examination of interpersonal predictors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32(4), 424-445. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.4.424
• Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2016). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
• Brown, L. A., Belli, G. M., Asnaani, A., & Foa, E. B. (2019). A review of the role of negative cognitions about oneself, others, and the world in the treatment of PTSD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 43, 143-173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-018-9938-1
• Carmassi, C., Dell'Oste, V., Bertelloni, C. A., Pedrinelli, V., Barberi, F. M., Malacarne, P., & Dell'Osso, L. (2022). Gender and occupational role differences in work-related post-traumatic stress symptoms, burnout and global functioning in emergency healthcare workers. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing, 69, 103154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iccn.2021.103154
• Chan, K. J., Young, M. Y., & Sharif, N. (2016). Well-being after trauma: A review of posttraumatic growth among refugees. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 57(4), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000065
• Comstock, C. (2010). Applied ethics in the technological world: an examination of secondary traumatic stress and trauma exposure in social media. (Doktora Tezi). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/applied-ethics-technological-worldexamination/docview/902516260/se-2?accountid= 25094 sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Comstock, C. & Platania, J. (2017). The role of media-induced secondary traumatic stress on perceptions of distress. American International Journal of Social Science, 16(1), 1-10.
• Conway, C. C., Hammen, C., Espejo, E. P., Wray, N. R., Najman, J. M., & Brennan, P. A. (2012). Appraisals of stressful life events as a genetically-linked mechanism in the stress–depression relationship. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(4), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9368-9
• Çevik, İ. & Okyay, P. (2023). Nedensel çıkarım süreci ve bazı önemli kavramlar: Etki değiştirici, karıştırıcı, çarpıştırıcı ve mediyatör. ESTÜDAM Halk Sağlığı Dergisi, 8(3), 361-374. https://doi.org/10.35232/estudamhsd.1307812
• Daly, B. & Chovaz, C. J. (2020). Secondary traumatic stress: Effects on the professional quality of life of sign language interpreters. American Annals of the Deaf, 165(3), 353–368.
• Dekel, R. & Nuttman-Shwartz, O. (2009). Posttraumatic stress and growth: The contribution of cognitive appraisal and sense of belonging to the country. Health & Social Work, 34(2), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/34.2.87
• Dolbier, C. L., Jaggars, S. S., & Steinhardt, M. A. (2010). Stress-related growth: Pre-intervention correlates and change following a resilience intervention. Stress and Health, 26, 135-147. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1275
• Durak, H. & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2016). Türkiye’de sosyal medya okuryazarlığı ve sosyal ağ kullanım örüntülerinin incelenmesi. Journal of International Social Research, 9(46), 526-536.
• Easton, S. D., Coohey, C., Rhodes, A. M., & Moorthy, M. V. (2013). Posttraumatic growth among men. Child Maltreatment, 18(4), 211-220. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559513503037
• Figley, C. R. (1995). Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. C. R. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatique: coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized içinde (s.1-21). New York: Routledge.
• Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Nepon, T. (2020). The Self-Generated Stress Scale: Development, psychometric features, and associations with perfectionism, self-criticism, and distress. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 38(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282919879542
• Gallaway, M. S., Millikan, A. M., & Bell, M. R. (2011). The association between deployment-related posttraumatic growth among. Journal of Clınıcal Psychology, 67(12), 1151-1160. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20837
• Gavranidou, M. & Rosner, R. (2003). The weaker sex? Gender and post‐traumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 17(3), 130-139. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10103
• Grace, J. J., Kinsella, E. L., Muldoon, O. T., & Fortune, D. G. (2015). Post-traumatic growth following acquired brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1162. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01162
• Graves, B. S., Hall, M. E., Dias-Karch, C., Haischer, M. H., & Apter, C. (2021). Gender differences in perceived stress and coping among college students. PloS One, 16(8), e0255634. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255634 Gül, E. & Karancı, N. (2017). What determines posttraumatic stress and growth following various traumatic events? A study in a Turkish community sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(1), 54-62. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22161
• Hamama‐Raz, Y., Hamama, L., Pat‐Horenczyk, R., Stokar, Y. N., Zilberstein, T., & Bron‐Harlev, E. (2021). Posttraumatic growth and burnout in pediatric nurses: The mediating role of secondary traumatization and the moderating role of meaning in work. Stress and Health, 37(3), 442-453. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3007
• Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 555–561. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.555
• Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938
• Henson, C., Truchot, D., & Canevello, A. (2021). What promotes post traumatic growth? A systematic review. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 5(4), 100195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2020.100195
• Hidalgo, J. L. T., Bravo, B. N., Martínez, I. P., Pretel, F. A., Postigo, J. M., & Rabadán, F. E. (2010). Psychological well-being, assessment tools and related factors. I. E. Wells (Ed.), Psychological well-being içinde (s. 77–113). New York: Nova Science.
• Hopwood, T. L., Schutte, N. S., & Loi, N. M. (2019). Stress responses to secondary trauma: Compassion fatigue and anticipatory traumatic reaction among youth workers. The Social Science Journal, 56(3), 337-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.008
• Irish, L. A., Fischer, B., Fallon, W., Spoonster, E., Sledjeski, E. M., & Delahanty, D. L. (2011). Gender differences in PTSD symptoms: An exploration of peritraumatic mechanisms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(2), 209-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.004
• Işık, E. & Aker, A. T. (2017). Ruhsal travma kavramı ve travma sonrası stres bozukluğunda tedavi yaklaşımları. Ö. Erdur-Baker & T. Doğan (Ed.), Afetler, krizler ve psikolojik yardım içinde (s. 205-221). Ankara: Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Derneği.
• İlhan, B. & Küpeli, İ. (2022). Secondary traumatic stress, anxiety, and depression among emergency healthcare workers in the middle of the COVID-19 outbreak: A cross-sectional study. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 52(2022), 99-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2021.11.051
• İslamoğlu, A. H. & Alnıaçık, Ü. (2014). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri. İstanbul: Beta.
• Jeon, S. W., Han, C., Choi, J., Ko, Y.-H., & Kim, Y.-K. (2017). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing to facilitate posttraumatic growth: A prospective clinical pilot study on ferry disaster survivors. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, 15(4), 320-327. https://doi.org/10.9758%2Fcpn.2017.15.4.320
• Jordan, G., Pope, M., Lambrou, A., Malla, A., & Iyer, S. (2017). Post‐traumatic growth following a first episode of psychosis: A scoping review. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 11(3), 187-199. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12349
• Joseph, S. & Linley, P. A. (2005). Positive adjustment to threatening events: An organismic valuing theory of growth through adversity. Review of General Psychology, 9(3), 262-280. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.262
• Joseph, S., Murphy, D., & Segel, S. (2012). An affective–cognitive processing model of post‐traumatic growth. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19(4), 316-325. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1798
• Kesimci, A., Göral, F. S., & Gençöz, T. (2005). Determinants of stress-related growth: Gender, stressfulness of the event, and coping strategies. Current Psychology, 24(1), 68-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-005-1005-x
• Kılıç, C., Magruder, K. M., & Koryürek, M. M. (2016). Does trauma type relate to posttraumatic growth after war? A pilot study of young Iraqi war survivors living in Turkey. Transcultural Psychiatry, 53(1), 110-123. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461515612963
• Kim, Y., Park, I., Kang, S., Kim, Y., Park, I., & Kang, S. (2018). Age and gender differences in health risk perception. Central European Journal of Public Health, 26(1), 54-59. https://doi.org/10.21101/cejph.a4920
• Kimerling, R., Ouimette, P., & Weitlauf, J. C. (2007). Gender issues in PTSD. M. J. Friedman, T. M. Keane & P. A. Resick (Ed.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice içinde (s. 207-228). USA: Guilford.
• Kleim, B. & Ehlers, A. (2009). Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between posttraumatic growth and posttrauma depression and PTSD in assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20378
• Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., Showers, C. J., & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(4), 470–500. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.4.470
• Kunst, J. J., Saan, M. C., Bollen, J. A., & Kuijpers, K. F. (2017). Secondary traumatic stress and secondary posttraumatic growth in a sample of Dutch police family liaison officers. Stress and Health, 33(5), 570-577. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2741
• Lai, L., Ren, Z., Yan, Y., Niu, G., Zhao, C., Luo, M., & Zhang, L. (2021). The double-edged-sword effect of empathy: The secondary traumatic stress and vicarious posttraumatic growth of psychological hotline counselors during the outbreak of COVID-19. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 53(9), 992-1002. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2021.00992
• Lin, N. & Ensel, W. M. (1989). Life stress and health: Stressors and resources. American Sociological Review, 54, 382-399. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095612
• Li, Y., Cao, F., Cao, D., Wang, Q., & Cuia, N. (2012). Predictors of posttraumatic growth among parents of children undergoing inpatient corrective surgery for congenital disease. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 47(11), 2011-2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2012.07.005
• Lyon, B. L. (2002). Cognitive self-care skills: A model for managing stressful lifestyles. Nursing Clinics, 37(2), 285-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-6465(01)00007-X
• Măirean, C. (2016). Secondary traumatic stress and posttraumatic growth: Social support as a moderator. The Social Science Journal, 53(1), 14-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2015.11.007
• Mancini, M. N. (2019). Development and validation of the secondary traumatic stress scale in a sample of socıal media users. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=csu 1560443336023163 sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Maniates, H., Stoop, T. B., Miller, M. W., Halberstadt, L., & Wolf, E. J. (2018). Stress‐generative effects of posttraumatic stress disorder: Transactional associations between posttraumatic stress disorder and stressful life events in a longitudinal sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31(2), 191-201. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22269
• Manning-Jones, S., de Terte, I., & Stephens, C. (2016). Secondary traumatic stress, vicarious posttraumatic growth, and coping among health professionals; A comparison study. New Zealand Journal of Psychology (Online), 45(1), 20-29.
• Mansfield, C. D. & Diamond, L. M. (2017). Does stress-related growth really matter for adolescents’ day-to-day adaptive functioning? The Journal of Early Adolescence, 37(5), 677-695. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431615620665
• Matud, M. P., Díaz, A., Bethencourt, J. M., & Ibáñez, I. (2020). Stress and psychological distress in emerging adulthood: A gender analysis. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(9), 2859. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092859 McLean, C. P. & Anderson, E. R. (2009). Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 496-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.05.003
• McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(8), 1027-1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006
• Merecz, D., Waszkowska, M., & Wezyk, A. (2012). Psychological consequences of trauma in MVA perpetrators–relationship between post-traumatic growth, PTSD symptoms and individual characteristics. Transportation Research Tart F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 15(5), 565-574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2012.05.008
• Michael, C. & Cooper, M. (2013). Post-traumatic growth following bereavement: A systematic review of the literature. Counselling Psychology Review, 28(4), 18-33.
• Newman, E., Riggs, D. S., & Roth, S. (1997). Thematic resolution, PTSD, and complex PTSD: The relationship between meaning and trauma-related diagnoses. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(2), 197-213. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024873911644
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 173-176.
• Norris, F. H., Foster, J. D., & Weisshaar, D. L. (2002). The epidemiology of gender differences in PTSD across developmental, societal, and research contexts. R. Kimmerling, P. Ouimette, & J. Wolfe (Ed.), Gender and PTSD içinde (s. 3-42). USA: Guilford.
• Nurullah, A. S. (2010). Gender differences in distress: The mediating influence of life stressors and psychological resources. Asian Social Science, 6(5), 27-35.
• Ogińska-Bulik, N. & Kobylarczyk, M. (2016). Association between resiliency and posttraumatic growth in firefighters: The role of stress appraisal. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 22(1), 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2015.1109372
• Olff, M. (2017). Sex and gender differences in post-traumatic stress disorder: An update. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(4), 1351204. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1351204
• Owen, R. (2014). Living with the enemy: Coping with the stress of chronic illness using CBT, mindfulness and acceptance. New York: Routledge.
• Özdemir, Ş. (2021). Sosyal medya çağında kuşakların medya kullanım alışkanlıklarının incelenmesi. İstanbul Arel Üniversitesi İletişim Çalışmaları Dergisi, 9(20), 281-308.
• Park, C. L. (1998). Stress‐related growth and thriving through coping: The roles of personality and cognitive processes. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 267-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01218.x
• Park, C. L. & Fenster, J. R. (2004). Stress-related growth: Predictors of occurrence and correlates with psychological adjusment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(2), 195-215. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.2.195.31019
• Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress‐related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71-105.
• Park, C. L., Riley, K. E., & Snyder, L. B. (2012). Meaning making coping, making sense, and post-traumatic growth following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 198-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.671347
• Penedo, F. J., Molton, I., Dahn, J. R., Shen, B.-J., Kinsinger, D., Traeger, L., ... & Antoni, M. (2006). A randomized clinical trial of group-based cognitive–behavioral stress management in localized prostate cancer: Development of stress management skills ımproves quality of life and benefit finding. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31(3), 261-270. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm3103_8
• Rochat, M. J. (2023). Sex and gender differences in the development of empathy. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 101(5), 718-729. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.25009
• Rudland, J. R., Golding, C., & Wilkinson, T. J. (2020). The stress paradox: How stress can be good for learning. Medical Education, 54(1), 40-45. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13830
• Ryff, C. D. & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 13–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0
• Samios, C., Rodzik, A. K., & Abel, L. M. (2012). Secondary traumatic stress and adjustment in therapists who work with sexual violence survivors: The moderating role of posttraumatic growth. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 40(4), 341-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2012.691463
• Sanders, A. & Szymanski, K. (2013). Siblings of people diagnosed with a mental disorder and posttraumatic growth. Community Ment Health, 49, 554-559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-012-9498-x
• Sayed, S., Iacoviello, B. M., & Charney, D. S. (2015). Risk factors for the development of psychopathology following trauma. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(70), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0612-y
• Sears, S. R., Stanton, A. L., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2003). The yellow brick road and the emerald city: Benefit finding, positive reappraisal coping and posttraumatic growth in women with early-stage breast cancer. Health Psychology, 22(5), 487-497. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0278-6133.22.5.487
• Seco, C. N. (2023). Perfectionism, self-generated stress and burnout in medical and dentistry students. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Estudo Geral Database: https://estudogeral.uc.pt/handle/10316/111485 sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Solcova, I. & Tavel, P. (2017). Stress-related growth in two challenging conditions. Journal of Human Performance in Extreme Environments, 13(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.7771/2327-2937.1099
• Sönmez, V. & Alacapınar, F. G. (2013). Örneklendirilmiş bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Anı.
• Steger, M. F., Owens, G. P., & Park, C. L. (2015). Violations of war: Testing the meaning‐making model among Vietnam veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 105-116. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22121
• Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6. b.). London: Pearson.
• Tedeschi, R. G. & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Tmumatic Stress, 9(3), 455-471. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02103658
• Tedeschi, R. G. & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20447194
• Teixeira, R. J. & Pereira, G. (2013). Factors contributing to posttraumatic growth and its buffering effect in adult children of cancer patients undergoing treatment. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 31(3), 235-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347332.2013.778932
• Tennen, H. & Affleck, G. (2002). Benefit-finding and benefit-reminding. C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology içinde (s. 584-597). Oxford: Oxford University.
• Trzebiński, J. & Zięba, M. (2013). Basic trust and posttraumatic growth in oncology patients. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 18(3), 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2012.687289
• TÜİK. (2023). Hane halkı bilişim teknolojileri (BT) kullanım araştırması. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Hanehalki-Bilisim-Teknolojileri-(BT)-Kullanim-Arastirmasi-2023-49407 sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Uliaszek, A. A., Zinbarg, R. E., Mineka, S., Craske, M. G., Griffith, J. W., Sutton, J. M., ... & Hammen, C. (2012). A longitudinal examination of stress generation in depressive and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(1), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025835
• Valente, M. J., Pelham, W. E. III, Smyth, H., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2017). Confounding in statistical mediation analysis: What it is and how to address it. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(6), 659–671. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000242
• Van Der Kolk, B. A. & McFarlane, C. (2007). The black hole of trauma. B. A. Van Der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane & L. Weisaeth (Ed.), Traumatic stress: the effects og owerwhelming experience on mind, body and society içinde (s.3-24). New York: The Guilford.
• Van Der Kolk, B. A. (2019). Beden kayıt tutar (N. C. Maral, Çev.). Ankara: Nobel.
• Vishnevsky, T., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., & Demakis, G. J. (2010). Gender differences in self-reported posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(1), 110-120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01546.x
• Wong, A., Le, H.-S., Lee, H.-P., Choi, Y.-K., & Lee, J.-H. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and posttraumatic growth following indirect trauma from the Sewol ferry disaster, 201. Psychiatry Investigation, 15(6), 613-619. https://doi.org/10.30773%2Fpi.2017.12.03
• Wong, C. C. Y. & Yeung, N. C. (2017). Self-compassion and posttraumatic growth: Cognitive processes as mediators. Mindfulness, 8, 1078-1087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0683-4
• Wu, X., Zhou, X., Wu, Y., & An, Y. (2015). The role of rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic growth among adolescents after the wenchuan earthquake. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1335. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01335
• Yarnell, L. M., Stafford, R. E., Neff, K. D., Reilly, E. D., Knox, M. C., & Mullarkey, M. (2015). Meta-analysis of gender differences in self-compassion. Self and Identity, 14(5), 499-520. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2015.1029966
• Yazıcı-Kabadayı, S. & Öztemel, K. (2022). The Turkish adaptation of the Stress-Related Growth Scale Short Form: A validity and reliability study. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 12(64), 53-67. https://doi.org/10.17066/tpdrd.1095997
• Yazıcı-Kabadayı, S. & Öztemel, K. (2024). The mediating role of rumination and self-regulation between self-generated stress and psychological well-being. Psychological Reports, 127(2), 550-576. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221119415
• Yıldız, S. B. (2022). Toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında travmanın sanata yansımaları. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). http://tez.yok.gov.tr sayfasından erişilmiştir.
• Yılmaz, M. & Zara, A. (2016). Traumatic loss and posttraumatic growth: the effect of traumatic loss related factors on posttraumatic growth. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry, 17(1), 5-11. https://doi.org/10.5455/apd.188311
• Yu, Y., Peng, L., Liu, B., Liu, Y., Li, M., Chen, L., … & Li, J. (2016). The effects of anxiety and depression on stress-related growth among Chinese army recruits: Resillience and coping as mediators. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(9), 1884-1895. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314567769
• Zerach, G. & Shalev, T. B. I. (2015). The relations between violence exposure, posttraumatic stress symptoms, secondary traumatization, vicarious post traumatic growth and illness attribution among psychiatric nurses. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 29(3), 135-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.01.002
• Zhong, B., Huang, Y., & Liu, Q. (2021). Mental health toll from the coronavirus: Social media usage reveals Wuhan residents’ depression and secondary trauma in the COVID-19 outbreak. Computers in Human Behavior, 114, 106524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106524
• Zhou, X., Wu, X., & An, Y. (2016). Understanding the relationship between trauma exposure and depression among adolescents after earthquake: The roles of fear and resilience. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 2044. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02044
• Zwahlen, D., Hagenbuch, N., Carley, M. I., Jenewein, J., & Buchi, S. (2010). Posttraumatic growth in cancer patients and partners—effects of role, gender and the dyad on couples' posttraumatic growth experience. Psycho‐oncology, 19(1), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1486