İznik Metamorfitleri'nin Çok Düşük Dereceli Metamorfizma Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi (Armutlu Yarımadası, KB Türkiye) / Investigations of Very Low Grade Metamorphism Properties of the İznik Metamorphics (Armutlu Peninsula, NW Turkey)

Year 2023, Volume: 66 Issue: 1, 75 - 106, 31.01.2023

Sema Tetiker

https://doi.org/10.25288/tjb.1121834

Abstract

İnceleme alanı Armutlu Yarımadası’nda Armutlu-Ovacık zonu içerisinde yüzeyleyen Karakaya Karmaşığı’nı (Alt Karakaya-AKK) temsil eden düşük dereceli metamorfik kökenli birimleri kapsamaktadır. Bu kapsamda İznik ve Yenişehir (Bursa) yörelerinde arazi çalışmalarıyla örnekler alınmış olup, örneklerde petrografik (optik mikroskop, SEM) ve mineralojik (XRD) incelemeler yapılmıştır. AKK birimlerinden İznik Metamorfitleri yeşil sist fasiyesi (metakumtaşı, sleyt, şist, kuvarsit, metagabro, metavolkanit, dolomitik mermer) kayalarla temsil edilmektedir. AKK birimlerinde bolluk sırasına göre kuvars, fillosilikat (illit, klorit, C-V, kaolinit, I-V, smektit, stilpnomelan, paragonit, serpentin), feldispat, kalsit, piroksen (ojit), dolomit, amfibol (hornblend, tremolit/aktinolit, antofillit) ve opak (hematit, götit) mineralleri tanımlanmıştır. AKK Birimi’ne ait şamozitik bileşimli trioktahedral kloritler IIb; illitler ise 2M1 ve 2M+1M politipine sahiptir. Kübler İndeksi (KI; Δ2) değerleri 0,19-0,41 Δ2 (ortalama 0,25 Δ2) olup, epimetamorfik ve yüksek ankimetamorfik dereceyi işaret etmektedir. AI (Δ2) değerleri 0,26-0,32 Δ2 (ortalama 0,29 Δ2) olup illit Kübler indeksi verileriyle uyumludur. Fenjitik bileşimli dioktahedral illitlerde b0 değerleri (Å) 8,952-9,030 Å (ortalama 8,995 Å) olup düşük-orta basınç fasiyes serisi bölgesinde yer almaktadır. AKK temsil eden İznik Metamorfitleri’nin litolojik, mineralojik ve kristal kimyasal parametre verileri (kristalinite, politipi ve b0) kuzeybatı ve iç-kuzeydoğu Anadolu’da yer alan (Nilüfer Birimi ve Turhal Metamorfitleri) eşdeğer birimler ile deneştirildiğinde, birimin Alt Karakaya’nın üst bölümüne (AKK-ÜB) karşılık gelen yeşilşist fasiyesine sahip metamorfizm koşullarına işaret etmektedir. Petrografik ve mineralojik veriler (parajenez, KI, AI, b0, indeks mineral birliktelikleri) İznik Metamorfitleri’nin Permiyen-Erken Kretase döneminde Alt yeşil şist (yüksek ankizon-epizon) fasiyesinde metamorfizm geçirdiğini ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

Karakaya Karmaşığı, İllit kristalinite, b0, Paragonit, Alpin metamorfizma

Supporting Institution

TÜBİTAK

Project Number

116Y387

Investigations of Very Low Grade Metamorphism Properties of the İznik Metamorphics (Armutlu Peninsula, NW Turkey)

Abstract

The study area included low-grade metamorphic units representing the Karakaya Complex (Lower Karakaya-LKC) outcropping in the Armutlu-Ovacık zone in the Armutlu Peninsula. In this study, samples were collected during field work in the Iznik and Yenişehir (Bursa) regions, and petrographic (optical microscope, SEM) and mineralogical (XRD) examinations were performed. Among the LKC units, the Iznik Metamorphics are represented by greenstone facies rocks (metasandstone, slate, schist, quartzite, metagabbro, metavolcanic, dolomitic marble). Quartz, phyllosilicate (illite, chlorite, C-V, kaolinite, I-V, smectite, stilpnomelane, paragonite, antigorite), feldspar, calcite, pyroxene (augite), dolomite, amphibole (hornblende, tremolite/actinolite, anthophyllite) and opaque minerals (hematite and goethite) were identified in descending order of abundance among the LKC unit. The trioctahedral chlorites with chamosite composition had the IIb polytype, whereas the illites had 2M1 and 2M+1M polytypes. The Kübler Index (KI; Δ2) values were in the range of 0.19-0.41 Δ2 (mean: 0.25 Δ2), which indicates epi-metamorphic and very low metamorphic grade. The AI (Δ2) values were in the range of 0.26-0.32 Δ2 (mean: 0.29 Δ2), which is compatible with the Kübler Index data from illites. Dioctahedral illites with phengite compositions had b0 values (Å) in the range of 8.952-9.030 Å (mean: 8.995 Å), and they were in the low- to moderate-pressure facies sequence. Comparing the lithological, mineralogical and crystal chemistry parameter data (crystallinity, polytype and b0) of the Iznik metamorphics representing LKC to those of equivalent units found in central-northeastern Anatolia (Nilüfer Unit and Turhal Metamorphics), the unit showed diagenesis-metamorphism conditions with greenstone facies corresponding to the upper part of the Lower Karakaya (LKC-UP). Petrographic and mineralogical data (paragenesis, KI, AI, b0, index mineral associations) revealed that the Iznik Metamorphics were affected by lower greenschist (high anchizone-epizone) metamorphism during the Permian-Early Cretaceous period.

Keywords

Karakaya Complex, Illite crystallinity, paragonite, b0, Alpine metamorphism

Project Number

116Y387

References

• Adamia, S. A., Lordkipanidze, M. B. & Zakariadze, G. S. (1977). Evolution of an active continental margin as exemplified by the Alpine history of the Caucasus. Tectonophysics, 40, 183-189.
• Ahn, J. & Peacor, D. R. (1985). Transmission electron microscopic study of diagenetic chlorite in Gulf Coast argillaceous sediments. Clays and Clay Minerals, 33(3), 228-236.
• Akartuna, M. (1968). Armutlu Yarımadası’nın jeolojisi. İÜ Fen Fakültesi Monografileri, 20, 105 s.
• Aksay, A., Pehlivan, S., Gedik, I., Bilginer, E., Duru, M., Akbaş, B. ve Altun, I. (2002). 1:500.000 ölçekli Türkiye Jeoloji Haritası, Zonguldak Paftası. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara.
• Árkai, P. (1991). Chlorite crystallinity: an empirical approach and correlation with illite crystallinity, coal rank and mineral facies as exemplified by Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks of northeast Hungary. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 9, 723-734.
• Árkai, P. (2002). Phyllosilicates in very low-grade metamorphism: Transformation to micas. In A. Mottana, F. P. Sassi, J. B. Thompson, Jr. ve S. Guggenhiem, (Eds.,), Micas: Crystal Chemistry and Metamorphic Petrology, 46, (p.: 463–478). Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Mineralogical Society of America, Chantilly, Virginia.
• Attlewell, P. & Taylor, R. K. (1969). A microtextural interpretation of a Welsh slate. International Journal of Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 6, 423-443.
• Beutner, E. C. (1978). Slaty cleavage and related strain in Martinsburg slate, Delaware Water Gap, New Jersey. American Journal of Science, 278, 1-23.
• Bingöl, E., Akyürek, B. ve Korkmazer, B. (1975). Biga Yarımadasının jeolojisi ve Karakaya Formasyonunun bazı özellikleri. Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılı Yerbilimleri Kongresi Tebliğleri (s.70-77), Maden Tetkik ve Arama Enstitüsü.
• Bozkaya, Ö., Gürsu, S. & Göncüoğlu, M. C. (2006). Textural and mineralogical evidence for a Cadomian tectonothermal event in the eastern Mediterranean (Sandıklı-Afyon area, western Taurides, Turkey). Gondwana Research, 10, 301-315.
• Bozkaya, Ö. & Yalçın, H. (2000). Very low-grade metamorphism of Upper Paleozoic-Lower Mesozoic sedimentary rocks related to sedimentary burial and thrusting in Central Taurus Belt, Konya, Turkey. International Geology Review, 42, 353-367.
• Bozkaya, Ö. & Yalçın, H. (2004). Diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic evolution of clay mineral assemblages in Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic rocks of the Eastern Taurides, Turkey. Clay Minerals, 39, 481-500.
• Bozkaya, Ö. & Yalçın, H. (2005). Diagenesis and very low-grade metamorphism of the Antalya Unit: mineralogical evidence of Triassic rifting, Alanya-Gazipaşa, Central Taurus Belt, Turkey. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 25, 109-119.
• Bozkaya, Ö. ve Yalçın, H., 2007. X-Işını difraktogramlarında kil minerallerinin karmaşık piklerinin çözümlenmesi: Türkiye’den örnekler. M. Kuşcu, O. Cengiz, E. Şener (Ed.ler), 13. Kil Sempozyumu, Bildiriler Kitabı, (s.16-31).
• Bozkaya, Ö., Yalçın, H. & Göncüoğlu, M. C. (2002). Mineralogic and organic responses to the stratigraphic irregularities: An example from the Lower Paleozoic very low-grade metamorphic units of the Eastern Taurus Autochthon, Turkey. Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 82, 355-373.
• Brindley, G. W. (1980). Quantitative x-ray mineral analysis of clays. In G.W. Brindley, G. Brown (Eds.), Crystal structures of Clay Minerals and their X-ray Identification (Mineralogical Society, London, 411-438.
• Brinkmann, R. (1966). Geotektonische Gliederung von Westanatolian. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte, 603-618.
• Brinkmann, R. (1971). The Geology of western Anatolia: The Geology and History of Turkey. Chambell, 171-190.
• Craig, J., Fitches, W. R. & Maltman, A. J. (1982). Chlorite-mica stacks in low-strain rocks from Central Wales. Geological Magazine, 119, 243-256.
• Dercourt, J., Zonenshain, L. P., Ricou, L. E., Kazmin, V.G., Le Pichon, X., Knipper, A. L., Grandjacquet, C., Sbortshikov, I. M., Geyssant, V., Lapurier, C., Perhersky, D. H., Boulin, J., Sibuet, J. C., Savostin, L. A., Sorokhtin, O., Westphall, M., Bazhenov, M. L., Lauer, J. P. & Biju-Duval, B. (1986). Geological Evolution of the Tethys Belt from the Atlantic to the Pamirs since the Liassic. Tectonophysics, 123, 241-315.
• Dimberline, A. J. (1986). Electron microscope and microprobe analysis of chlorite-mica stacks in the Wenlock turbidites, Mid Wales, UK. Geological Magazine, 123, 299-306.
• Eberl, D.D. ve Velde, B., 1989. Beyond the Kübler index. Clay Minerals, 24, 571-577.
• Ehlers, E.G. & Blatt, H. (1982). Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic. W. H. Freeman and Company. USA.
• Ellero A., Frassi, C., Göncüoǧlu, M. C., Lezzerini, M., Marroni, M., Ottria, G., Pandolfi1, L., Sayit, K. & Tamponi, M. (2021). Geological, Structural and Mineralogical Approach to Investigate the Evolution of Low- and very Low-Grade Metamorphic Units from the Intra-Pontide Suture Zone, Central Pontides, Turkey. Journal of Earth Science, 32(6), 1512–1527.
• Elmas, A. & Yiğitbaş, E. (2001). Ophiolite emplacement by strike-slip tectonics between the Pontide Zone and the Sakarya Zone in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. Internatıonal Journal of Earth Sciences, 90(2), 257-269.
• Elmas, A. & Yiğitbaş, E. (2005). Comment on “Tectonic evolution of the Intra-Pontide suture zone in the Armutlu Peninsula, NW Turkey” by Robertson and Ustaömer. Discussion. Tectonophysics, 405, 213 – 221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2005.05.007
• Federici, I., Cavazza, W., Okay, A. I., Beyssac, O., Zattin, M., Corrado, Z. & Dellisanti, F. (2010). Thermal Evolution of the Permo−Triassic Karakaya Subduction-accretion Complex between the Biga Peninsula and the Tokat Massif (Anatolia). Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 19, 409–429. https://doi.org/10.3906/yer-0910-39
• Frey, M. (1987). Very low-grade metamorphism of clastic sedimentary rocks. In Low Temperature Metamorphism, Glasgow, 9-58.
• Genç, Ş. C. (1987). Geology of the Region Between Uludağ and İznik Lake: Guidebook and Field Guide Along Western Anatolia, Turkey. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute Publication, 19-25.
• Genç, Ş. C. (1992). Geology of the Bursa region. International Symposium on the Geology of Black Sea Region. Guide Book, 22-24.
• Genç, Ş. C. & Yılmaz, Y. (1995). Evolution of the Triassic continental margin, Northwest Anatolia. Tectonophysics, 243, 193-207.
• Göncüoğlu, M. C., Turhan, N., Şentürk, K., Uysal, Ş., Özcan, A. ve Işık, A. (1996). Orta Sakarya’da Nallıhan Sarıcakaya Arasındaki Yapısal Birliklerin Jeolojik Özellikleri [Rapor no: 10094]. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü (yayımlanmamış).
• Göncüoğlu, M. C., Dirik, K. & Kozlu, H. (1997). General chracteristics of pre-Alpine and Alpine Terranes in Turkey: Explanatory notes to the terrane map of Turkey. Annales Geologique de Pays Hellenique, 37, 515-536.
• Göncüoğlu, M. C., Erendil, M., Tekeli, O., Aksay, A., Kuşçu, İ. & Ürgün, B. (1987). Geology of the Armutlu Peninsula. IGCP Project 5, Guide Book. Field Excursion along W-Anatolia, 12-18.
• Göncüoğlu, M. C., Erendil, M., Tekeli, O., Aksay, A., Kuşçu, A. & Ürgün, B. (1992). Introduction to the geology of the Armutlu Peninsula. ISGB-92, Guide Book, 26–36.
• Guggenheim, S., Bain, D. C., . Bergaya, F., Brigatty, M. F., Drits, A., Eberl, D. D., Formoso M. L. L., Galan, E., Merriman, R. J., Peacor, D. R., Stanjek, H. & Watanabe T. (2002). Report of the AIPEA nomenclature committee for 2001: order, disorder and crystallinity in phyllosilicates and the use of the “Crystallinity Index”. Clay Minerals, 37, 389-393.
• Guidotti, C.V. & Sassi, F. P. (1986). Classification and correlation of metamorphic facies series by means of muscovite b0 data from low-grade metapelites. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Abhandlungen, 153, 363-380.
• Hoeppener, R. (1956). Zur Problem der Bruchbildung, Schieferung und Faltung. Geologische Rundschau, 45, 247-283.
• Holeywel, R. C. & Tullis, T. E. (1975). Mineral reorientation and slaty cleavage in the Martinsburg Formation, Lehigh Gap, Pennslylvania. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 86, 1269-1304.
• Hunziker, J. C., Frey, M., Clauer, N., Dallmeyer, R. D., Fredrichsen, H., Flehmig, W., Hochstrasser, K., Roggviler, P. & Schwander, H. (1986). The evolution of illite to muscovite. Mineralogical and isotopic data from the Glarus Alps, Switzerland. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 92, 157-180.
• J.C.P.D.S. (1990). Powder Diffraction File. Alphabetical Indexes Inorganic Phases. USA: Swarthmore.
• Jaboyedoff, M., Bussy, F., Kübler, B. & Thelin, P.H. (2001). Illite “crystallinity” revisited. Clays and Clay Minerals, 49, 156-167.
• Kandemir, Ö., Pehlivan, Ş., Kanar, F., Tok, T. & Çakır, K., 2014. 1:100 000 Ölçekli Türkiye Jeoloji Haritaları, Bursa-H23 Paftası. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü Jeoloji Etüdleri Dairesi. Ankara.
• Kaya, O. (1977). Gemlik – Orhangazi alanının Paleozoyik temel yapısına yaklaşım. Yerbilimleri, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, 3(1/2) 115-118.
• Kisch, H. J. (1983). Mineralogy and petrology of burial diagenesis (burial metamorphism) in clastic rocks. In G. Larsen, & G.V. Chilingar, (Eds.), Diagenesis in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks, 2 (pp. 289-493 & 513-541). Elsevier, Amsterdam.
• Kisch, H. J. (1991). Development of slaty cleavage and degree of vey-low-grade metamorphism: a review. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 9, 735-750.
• Krinsley, D. H., Pye, K. & Kearsley, A. T. (1983). Application of backscattered electron microscopy in shale petrology. Geological Magazine, 120, 109-114.
• Krumm, S. (1996). WINFIT 1.2: version of November 1996 (The Erlangen geological and mineralogical software collection) of WINFIT 1.0: a public domain program for interactive profile-analysis under WINDOWS. XIII Conference on Clay Mineralogy and Petrology, Praha, 1994. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geologica, 38, 253-261.
• Krushensky, R., Akçay, Y. & Karaege, E., 1980. Geology of the Karalar-Yeşiller area, Northwest natolia, Turkey. Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey, 1461, 1-72.
• Kübler, B. (1968). Evaluation quantitative du métamorphisme par la cristallinité de l'illite. Bulletin-Centre de Recherches Pau-SNPA, 2, 385-397.
• Kübler B. (1984). Les indicateurs des transformationsphysiques et chimiques dans la diagenèse, températureet calorimétrie. In M. Lagache (Ed.), Thermobarométrieet Barométrie Géologiques (pp. 489–596). Societe de Francais Minéalogie et Cristallographie, Paris (in French).
• Merriman, R. J. (2005). Clay minerals and sedimentary basin history. European Journal of Mineralogy, 17, 7-20.
• Merriman, R. J. & Peacor, D. R. (1999). Very low-grade metapelites: mineralogy, microfabrics and measuring reaction progress. In M.Frey & D. Robinson (Eds.), Low-grade metamorphism (pp. 10–60). Oxford: Blackwell Science
• Merriman, R. J. & Frey, M. (1999). Patterns of very low-grade metamorphism in metapelitic rocks. In: M. Frey, D. Robinson (Eds.), Low-Grade Metamorphism (pp. 61-107). Blackwell Science.
• Merriman, R. J. & Roberts, B. (1985). A survey of white mica crystallinity and polytypes in pelitic rocks of Snowdonia and Llyn, Nort Wales. Mineralogical Magazine, 49(3), 305-319.
• Merriman, R. J., Roberts, B. & Peacor, D. R. (1990). A transmission electron microscopy study of white mica crystallite size distribution in a mudstone to slate transitional sequence, North Wales, UK. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 106, 27-44.
• Meunier, A., Velde, B. & Zalba, P. (2004). Illite K-Ar and crystal growth processes in diagenetic environments: a critical review. Terra Nova, 16, 296-304.
• Milodowski, A.E. 6 Zalasiewicz, J. A. (1991). The origin, sedimentary, diagenetic and metamorphic evolution of chlorite-mica stacks in Llandovery sediments of central Wales, UK. Geological Magazine, 128, 263-278.
• Morad, S. (1986). Mica-chlorite intergrowths in very low-grade metamorphic sedimentary rocks from Norway. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Abhandlungen, 154, 271-287.
• Okay, A. İ. (1984). Distribution and characteristics of the northwest Turkish blueschists. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 17, 455-466.
• Okay, A. İ. (1989a). Edremit-Balya-Manyas arasının jeolojisi ve Jeotektoniği (Rapor No:2657). TPAO Arama Grubu.
• Okay, A. İ. (1989b). Tectonic units and sutures in the Pontides, northern Turkey. In A.M.C. Şengör, (Ed.), Tectonic Evolution of the Tethyan Region (pp. 109-115). Kluwer Academic Publications, Dordrecht.
• Okay, A. İ. (2000). Was the Late Triassic orogeny in Turkey caused by the collision of an oceanic plateau. In E. Bozkurt, J. A. Winchester, J. D. A. & Piper (Eds.), Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area (pp. 25-41). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 173.
• Okay, A.İ. & Monié, P. (1997). Early Mesozoic subduction in the Eastern Mediterranean: evidence from Triassic eclogite in Northwest Turkey. Geology, 25, 595-598.
• Okay, A. İ. Siyako, M. & Bürkan, K.A. (1991). Geology and Tectonic evolution of the Biga Peninsula, NW Turkey. Bulletin of the Technical University of İstanbul, 44, 191-256.
• Okay, A. İ. & Göncüoğlu, M. C. (2004). The Karakaya Complex: A Review of Data and Concepts. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 13, 77-95.
• Okay, A.İ., Siyako, M. ve Bürkan, K. A. (1990). Biga Yarımadası’nın jeolojisi ve tektonik evrimi. Türkiye Petrol Jeologları Derneği Bülteni, 2(1), 83-121.
• Okay, A. İ., Monod, O. & Monie, P. (2002). Triassic blueschists and eclogites from northwest Turkey: vestiges of the Paleo-Tethyan subduction. Lithos, 64, 155-178.
• Okay, A.I., Satır, M., Zattin, M., Cavazza,W. & Topuz, G. (2008). An Oligocene ductile strike-slip shear zone: the Uludağ Massif, northwest Turkey – implication for the westward translation of Anatolia. Geological Society of American Bulletin 120, 893–911.
• Pique, A. & Wybrecht, E. (1987). Origine des chlorites de l'épizone héritage et cristallisation synschisteuse Exemple des grauwackes cambriennes du Maroc occidental. Bulletin de Minéralogie, 110, 665-682.
• Pye, K. & Krinsley, D. H. (1983). Inter-layered clay stacks in Jurassic shales. Nature, 304, 618-620.
• Robertson, A. H. F. & Dixon, J. E. (1984). Introduction: aspects of the geological evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean. In: J.E. Dixon, & A.H.F. Robertson, (Eds.) The Geological evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean. Geological Society, London, Special publications, 17, 1-74.
• Robertson, A.H.F. & Ustaömer, T. (2004). Tectonic evolution of the Intra-Pontide suture zone in the Armutlu Peninsula, NW Turkey. Tectonophysics, 381, 175–209.
• Rojay, B. & Göncüoğlu, M. C. (1997). Tectonic setting of some pre-Liassic low grade metamorphics in northern Anatolia. Yerbilimleri, 19, 109-350.
• Roy, A. B. (1978). Evolution of slaty cleavage in relation to diagenesis and metamorphism: a study from the Hunsrückschiefer. Bulletin of Geological Society of America, 89, 1775-1785.
• Sassi, F.P. & Scolari, A. (1974). The b0 value of the potassic white micas as a barometric indicator in low-grade metamorphism of pelitic schists. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 45, 143-152.
• Srodon, J. (1984). X-ray powder diffraction identification of illitic materials. Clays and Clay Minerals, 32, 337-349.
• Stampfli, G. M. (2000). Tethyan oceans. In E. Bozkurt, J. A. Winchester, J. D. A. & Piper (Eds.), Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area (pp. 163–185). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 173.
• Şengör, A. M. C. (1979). The North Anatolian tranform fault: its age, offset and tectonic significance. Journal of the Geological Society of London, 136, 269-282.
• Şengör, A. M. C., Görür, N. & Şaroğlu, F. (1985). Strike-Slip Faulting and related basin formation in zones of tectonic escape: Turkey as a case study. The Society of Economic Paleontologist and Mineralogist, 227-262. https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.85.37.0211
• Şengör, A. M. C. & Yılmaz, Y. (1981). Tethyan evolution of Turkey, a plate tectonic approach. Tectonophysics, 75, 181-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(81)90275-4
• Şengör, A. M. C., Yılmaz, Y. & Sungurlu, O. (1984). Tectonics of the Mediterranean Cimmerides: nature and evolution of the western termination of Paleo-Tethys. In J. E. Dixon, & A.H.F. Robertson (Eds.), The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean (pp. 77-1112). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 17.
• Tekeli, O. (1981). Subduction complex of pre-Jurassic age, Northern Anatolia, Turkey. Geology, 9, 68-72.
• Tetiker, S., Yalcın, H. & Bozkaya, O. (2009a). Low grade metamorphism of the units from Karakaya Complex (Tokat region). Proceedings of 14th National Clay Symposium, 155-173.
• Tetiker, S., Yalcın, H. & Bozkaya, O. (2009b). Diagenesis and low grade metamorphism of Karakaya Complex in the NW Anatolia. Yerbilimleri 30, 193–212.
• Tetiker, S., Yalçın, H., Bozkaya, Ö. & Göncüoğlu, M. C. (2015a). Metamorphic evolution of the Karakaya Complex in northern Turkey based on phyllosilicate mineralogy. Mineralogy and Petrology, 109, 201-215.
• Tetiker, S., Yalçın, H. ve Bozkaya, H. (2015b). Karakaya Karmaşığı’nın Düşük Dereceli Metamorfik Tarihçesine Klorit Mineralojisi ve Jeokimyası ile Yaklaşımlar. Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni, 58(2), 55-83. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tjb/issue/28111/298527
• Türkecan, A. ve Yurtsever, A. (2002). 1:500.000 ölçekli Türkiye Jeoloji Haritası, Zonguldak paftası. Ankara: Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü.
• Ustaömer, T. & Robertson, A. H. F. (1997). Tectonic-sedimentary evolution of the north Tethyan margin in the Central Pontides of northern Turkey. In: A.G. Robinson (Ed), Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region (pp. 255-290). American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, 68.
• Ustaömer, T. & Robertson, A. H. F. (1999). Geochemical evidence used to test alternative plate tectonic models for the pre-Upper Jurassic (Palaeotethyan) units in the central Pontides, N Turkey. Geological Journal, 34, 25-53.
• Van Der Pluijm, B. & Kaars-Sijpesteijn, C. H. (1984). Chlorite-mica aggregates: Morphology, orientation, development and bearing on cleavage formation in very-low-grade rocks. Journal of Structural Geology, 6, 399-407.
• Voll, G. (1960). New work on petrofabrics. Liverpool and Manchester Geological Journal, 2, 503-567.
• Warr, L. N. (2015). Ferreiro-Mählmann, R. Recommendations for Kübler Index standardization. Clay Mineral, 50, 283-286.
• Warr, L. N. & Rice, A. H. N. (1994). Interlabratory standartization and calibration of clay mineral crystallinity and crystallite size data. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 12, 141-152.
• Weber, K. (1981). Kinematic and metamorphic aspects of cleavage formation in very low-grade metamorphic slates. Tectonophysics, 78, 291-306.
• Weber, K., Dunoyer de Segonzac, G. & Economou, C. (1976). Une nouvelle expression de la "cristallinité" de l'illite et des micas. Notion d'épaisseur apparente des cristallites. Compes Rendus Somm. Sociéte de la Géologique de France, 5, 225-227.
• White, S. H., Huggett, J. M. & Shaw, H. F. (1985). Electron-optical studies of phyllosilicate intergrowths in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Mineralogical Magazine, 49, 413-423.
• Williams, P. F. (1972). Development of metamorphic layering and cleavage in low grade metamorphic rocks at Bermagui, Australia. American Journal of Science, 272, 1-47.
• Woodland, B. G. (1982). Gradational development of domainal slaty cleavage, its origin and relation to chlorite porphyroblasts in the Martinsburg Formation, eastern Pennsylvania. Tectonophysics, 82, 89-124.
• Woodland, B. G. (1985). Relationship of concretions and chlorite-muscovite porphyroblasts to the development of domainal cleavage in low-grade metamorphic deformed rocks from north-central Wales, Great Britain. Journal of Structural Geology, 7, 205-215.
• Yalçın, H. ve Bozkaya, Ö. (2002). Hekimhan (Malatya) çevresindeki Üst Kretase yaşlı volkaniklerin alterasyon mineralojisi ve jeokimyası: Denizsuyu-kayaç etkileşimine bir örnek. C.Ü. Müh. Fakültesi Dergisi Seri A-Yerbilimleri, 19, 81-98.
• Yılmaz, A. & Yılmaz, H. (2004). Geology and structural evolution of the Tokat masif (Eastern Pontides, Turkey). Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 13, 231-246.
• Yılmaz, Y., Şaroğlu, F. & Güner, Y. (1987). Initiation of the neomagmatism in East Anatolia. Tectonophysics, 134, 177-199.
• Yılmaz, Y., Tüysüz, O., Yiğitbaş, E., Genç, Ş. C. & Şengör, A.M.C., 1997. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Pontides. In A. G. Robinson (Ed.), Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surroinding Region (pp.183-226). American Association of Petroleum Geologist Memoir, 68.
• Yılmaz, Y., Gürpınar, O., Genç, C., Bozcu, M., Yılmaz, K., Şeker, H., Yiğitbaş, E. ve Keskin, M., 1990. Armutlu Yarımadası ve Dolayının Jeolojisi (Rapor no: 2796). TPAO, 210s.
• Yiğitbaş, E., Elmas, A. & Yılmaz, Y. (1999). Pre-Cenozoictectono-Stratigraphic Componentsof The Western Pontides And Their Geological Evolution. Geological Journal, 34, 55-74.
• Yiğitbaş, E., Kerrich, R., Yılmaz, Y., Elmas, A. & Qianli, X. (2004). Characteristics and Geochemistry of Precambrian Ophiolites from the Western Pontides, Turkey: Following the Missing Chain of the Precambrian South European Suture Zone to the East. Precambrian Research, 132(1-2), 179- 206.