Land use and trihalomethanes generation in water reservoir, a case study from Istanbul, Türkiye

Abstract

Objective: The Büyükçekmece and Terkos drinking water reservoirs occur in the European part of Istanbul, have been created by isolation of two coastal lagoon lakes from the sea, which supply approximately 25% of water consumption of the Metropolitan city. Methods: Treated waters of these two reservoirs have quite different trihalomethanes (THMs) concentrations although being adjacent basins that range between 10 - 30 (mean 20.8) ppb for the Terkos and 20 – 65 (mean 41) ppb for the Büyükçekmece reservoir. THMs concentration in treated water for both Büyükçekmece and the Terkos reservoirs increase in the summer and decrease in the spring. Furthermore, THMs of the treated water of Büyükçekmece reservoir are so higher than those of the other reservoir waters of İstanbul. Results: The main reason of the higher value of THMs for the Büyükçekmece reservoir water could be related to ongoing agricultural activity in the vicinity of drainage basin. Another important indicator parameter for the THM formation mechanism is Specific UV absorbance (SUVA) value, that showed both of reservoir’s organics in water mostly composed with hydrophilic properties. Conclusion: Seasonal variations of low nitrate–high THMs in summer and high nitrate–low THMs in winter in treated lake waters can be explained by nitrogen run off from the land and consumption by photosynthesis when the water reach favourable temperature in summer. High nitrogen input into the Büyükçekmece reservoir could be associated with agricultural activity in the drainage basin which controls the high amount of organic carbon formation and high THMs generation during the treatment by chlorine.

Keywords

• Büyükçekmece Lake
• Terkos Lake
• Trihalomethanes
• Agriculture
• Land Use

References

1. Weinberg H, Krasner S, Richardson, S, Thruston A. The Occurrence of Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) of Health Concern in Drinking Water: Results of a Nationwide DBP Occurrence Study; [online]. Available at; www.epa.gov/athens/publications/ reports/EPA_600_R02_ 068.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2021.
2. [EWG] Chlorine Pollutants at High Levels in D.C. Tap water: Tests Find Hazardous Chlorination Byproducts, Environmental Working Group. [online]. Available at; www.ewg.org/research/chlorine-pollutants-high-levels-dc-tap-water. Accessed April 06, 2023.
3. Toledano MB, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Best N, Whitaker H, Hambly P, Hoogh C, Fawell J, Jarup L, Elliott P. Rela-tion of trihalomethane concentrations in public water supplies to stillbirth and birth weight in three water regions in England, Environ Health Perspect 2005;113(2): 225–232.
4. Chang C, Ho S, Wang L, Yang C. Bladder Cancer in Taiwan: Relationship to Trihalomethane Concentrations Present in Drinking–Water Supplies. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2007;70(20): 1752–1757.
5. Hoffman CS, Mendola P, Savitz DA, Herring AH, Loomis D, Hartmann KE, Singer PC, Weinberg HS, Olshan AF. Drinking water disinfection by-product exposure and fetal growth. Epidemiology 2008; 19(5): 729–737.
6. Summerhayes RJ, Morgan GG, Edwards HP, Lincoln D, Earnest A, Rahman B, Beard JR. Exposure to trihalo-methanes in drinking water and small–forgestational–age births. Epidemiology 2012; 23(1): 15–22.
7. Villanueva C, Cantor K, Grimalt J, Malats N, Silverman D, Tardon A. Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools. Am J Epidemiol 2007;165(2): 148–156.
8. OEHHA: Draft Public Health Goal for Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment California Environmental Protection Agency. [online]. Available at; oehha.ca.gov/water/phg/pdf/THMPHG090910.pdf. Accessed December 10, 2023.

9. ISKI: Istanbul Water quality report, treatment plant water quality average values, Istanbul water and sewer-age administration authority. [online]. Available at; iski.istanbul/abone-hizmetleri/laboratuvar-hizmetleri/su-kalite-raporlari. Accessed December 10, 2023.
10. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association. Water Environment Federation. Lipps WC, Braun-Howland EB, Baxter TE, eds: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 24th ed. Washington DC: APHA Press. 2023. p. 185-188.
11. ISKI: Regulations of drinking water basins. Istanbul water and sewerage administration authority. [online]. Available at; iski.istanbul/kurumsal/iski-mevzuati. Accessed November 30, 2023.
12. Coskun GH, Alparslan E. Environmental modelling of Omerli catchment area in Istanbul, Turkey using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Environ. Monitor. Asses. 2009;153(1–4): 323–332.
13. Saatci AM. Solving Water Problems of a Metropolis. J Water Resour Protec. 2013;5(4a): 7–10.
14. Baykal BB, Tanik A, Gonenc E. Water quality in drinking water reservoirs of a Megacity, Istanbul. Environ Manage. 2000;26(6): 607–614.
15. Reckhow DA, Singer PC, Malcolm RL. Chlorination of humic materials: by-product formation and chemical interpretations. Environ Sci Technol. 1990;24 (11): 1655-1664
16. Lin L, Singer PC. Factors Influencing the Formation and Relative Distribution of Haloacetic Acids and Trihalo-methanes in Drinking Water. Environ Sci Technol. 2003;37(13): 2920-2928.
17. Edzwald J, Becker WC, Wattier KL. Surrogate Parameters for Monitoring Organic Matter and THM Precur-sors. American Water Works Association. 1985;77(4):122-132.
18. Costet N, Villanueva CM, Jaakkola JJK, Kogevinas M, Cantor KP, King WD. Water disinfection by-products and bladder cancer: is there a European specificity? A pooled and meta-analysis of European case-control stud-ies. Occup Environ Med 2011. 68(5):379–385.
19. Ribera LF, Kogevinas M, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Grimalt JO, Villanueva CM. Patterns of water use and exposure to trihalomethanes among children in Spain, Environ Res 2010. 110(6), 571-579.
20. Fram SM, Bergamaschi BA, Fujii R. Improving Water Quality in Sweetwater Reservoir, San Diego County, Cali-fornia. Sources and Mitigation Strategies for Trihalomethane (THM)-Forming Carbon, USGS Fact Sheet 112–01; [online]. Available at; pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-112-01/pdf. Accessed September 11, 2023.
21. Uyak V, Toroz I, Meric S. Monitoring and Modelling of Trihalomethanes (THM) for a Water Treatment Plant in Istanbul. Desal. 2005;176(1): 91–101.
22. Toroz I, Uyak V. Seasonal variations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in water distribution networks of Istanbul City. Desal. 2005;176(1): 127–141.
23. Uyak V. Multi-pathway risk assessment of trihalomethanes exposure in Istanbul drinking water supplies. En-viron Int, 2006;32(1): 12–21.
24. Öztürk H. Water disenfection and public health: THMs and nitrate values of the treated waters of the Ömerli and Büyükçekmece Reservoirs of İstanbul and their meanings (In Turkish). 19th Toxicology Congress; May, 17 – 19. Muğla. Clinical Toxicology Organization Publications. 2014. p. 176-183.
25. Porter CK, Putnam SD, Hunting KL, Riddle MR. The effect of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid exposure on fetal growth in a Maryland county. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162(4) 334–344.