Siyasi Süreç Modeli ve Tunus’ta “İslami Eğilim Hareketi”

Year 2023, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 161 - 197, 30.12.2023

Halil Atilla Sivrikaya

https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1342088

Abstract

En-Nahda Hareketi’nin öncülü olan İslami Eğilim Hareketi’ne (İEH) odaklanan bu makalenin temel sorusu, 1981-1989 arası dönemde İEH’nin Tunus’taki toplumsal hareketlilik sürecini açıklamaktır. Bu makale, İEH’nin Tunus’ta neden ve nasıl ortaya çıktığını, bir siyasi parti kurduğunu, Tunus’taki diğer hareketlerden farklı hedefler yarattığını ve ittifak tercihlerinde, stratejilerinde ve politikalarında dikkate değer bir ılımlılık, pragmatizm ve esneklik gösterdiğini incelemektedir. Bu makale, İEH’yi Sosyal Hareket Teorisi (SHT) doğrultusunda incelemekte ve bu bağlamda, Sidney George Tarrow, Doug McAdam ve Charles Tilly tarafından geliştirilen Siyasi Süreç Modeli’ni (SSM) uygulamaktadır. Makale, SSM’yi uygulayarak Batılı olmayan yarı otoriter bir siyasi ortamda toplumsal hareketliliği incelemenin yanı sıra söz konusu dönemde değişen ve dönüşen siyasi fırsat yapılarını, örgütsel dinamikleri ve çerçeveleme süreçlerini ortaya çıkararak literatüre katkıda bulunmaktadır. İEH örneğinden yola çıkan bu makale, İslami bir hareketin devlet baskısına rağmen siyasi fırsat yapıları, örgütsel dinamikler ve çerçeveleme süreçleri aracılığıyla ılımlılıkla ayakta kalabileceğini ve tabanını harekete geçirebileceğini savunmaktadır.

Keywords

Sosyal Hareket Teorisi, Siyasi Süreç Modeli, İslami Eğilim Hareketi, En-Nahda Hareketi, Tunus

The Political Process Model and The “Islamic Tendency Movement” in Tunisia

Abstract

Focusing on the Islamic Tendency Movement (MTI/Harakat al-Ittijah al-Islami), the predecessor of the al-Nahda Movement (Harakat al-Nahda), the primary question of this article is to explain the social mobilization process of the MTI in Tunisia from 1981 to 1989. This article examines why and how the MTI emerged; founded a political party, created distinct goals different from other movements in Tunisia, and showed remarkable moderation, pragmatism and flexibility in its preferences of alliance, strategies and policies. This article analyzes the MTI in accordance with the Social Movement Theory, and in this context, applies the Political Process Model (PPM) advanced mainly by Sidney George Tarrow, Doug McAdam and Charles Tilly. This article contributes to literature through examining mobilization in a non-Western semi-authoritarian political setting by applying the PPM, as well as uncovering the changing and transforming political opportunity structures, organizational dynamics and framing processes. Drawing on the MTI case, this article argues that an Islamist movement can survive and mobilize its base via political opportunity structures, organizational dynamics and framing processes through moderation despite a state repression.

Keywords

Social Movement Theory, Political Process Model, Islamic Tendency Movement, al-Nahda Movement, Tunisia

References

• Albrecht, Holger and Eva Wegner. “Autocrats and Islamists: Contenders and containment in Egypt and Morocco.” Journal of North African Studies 11, 2 (2006): 123–141.
• Alexander, Christopher. “Opportunities, organizations, and ideas: Islamists and workers in Tunisia and Algeria.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 32, 4 (2000): 465-490.
• Alexander, Christopher. Tunisia: Stability and Reform in the Modern Maghreb. London: Routledge, 2010.
• Allani, Alaya. “The Islamists in Tunisia between confrontation and participation: 1980- 2008.” The Journal of African Studies 14, 2 (2009): 257-272.
• al-Madani, Tawfiq (توفيق المديني). الأحزاب القومية واليسارية الإسلامية :تاريخ المعارضة التونسية من النشأة إلى الثورة (Başlangıcından Devrime Tunus Muhalefetinin Tarihi: Ulusal, Solcu ve İslamcı Partiler). Tunus: Meskiliani Basımevi, 2012.
• al-Mansuri, Walid ((وليد المنصوري. الاتجاه الإسلامي وبورقيبة: محكمات من لمن؟ (İslami Eğilim ve Burgiba). Tunus: 1988. Benford, Robert and David Snow. “Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 611–639.
• Bessis, Sophie and Souhayr Belhassen. Bourguiba: Un si long regne (1957-1989). Paris: Japress, 1989. Botha, Anneli. Terrorism in the Maghreb: The Transnationalisation of Domestic Terrorism. Pretoria/Tshwane: Institute for Security Studies, 2008.
• Boudreau, Vincent. “State Repression and Democracy Protest in Three Southeast Asian Countries.” in Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State, David S. Meyer, Nancy Whittier and Belinda Robnett (Editors), 28-46. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Boulby, Marion. “The Islamic challenge: Tunisia since independence.” Third World Quarterly 10, 2 (1988): 590-614.
• Burgat, Francois. The Islamic Movement in North Africa. Translated by William Dowell. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.
• Camau, Michel and Vincent Geisser. Le Syndrome Autoritaire: Politique en Tunisie de Bourguiba à Ben Ali. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2003.
• Davenport, Christian. “The promise of democratic pacification: An empirical assessment.” International Studies Quarterly 48, 3 (2004): 539-560.
• De Smet, Brecht. “Dreaming about the lesser evil: Revolutionary desire and the limits of democratic transition in Egypt.” Workers Of The World 1, 17 (2015): 68-75.
• Dhoukar, Hedi. “Bourguiba contre les islamistes.” Jeune Afrique 1395 (1987): 28-32. Dunn, Michael Collins. “The Al-Nahda Movement in Tunisia: From Renaissance to Revolution.” in Islamism and Secularism in North Africa, John Ruedy (Editor), 149-165. Washington: Macmillan, 1996.
• Dursun, Hatice Rumeysa. “Tunus’ta otoriter yönetim ve İslamcı hareketin doğuşu: Burgiba dönemi üzerine bir değerlendirme (1956-1987).” Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi 4, 1 (2017), 132-157. Dursun, Selim. “Rejim güvenliği ve Tunus dış politikası.” Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi 4, 2 (2017): 103-135.
• Edwards, Bob and John D. McCarthy. “Resources and Social Movement Mobilization.” in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi (Editors), 116-152. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
• Enhaili, Aziz. “Tunisia.” in Guide to Islamist Movements, Barry Rubin (Editor), 391-405. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2010.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “بيان توضيحي من حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 16 يناير 1983 (İEH’nin Açıklayıcı Deklarasyonu, 16 Ocak 1983).” Erişim: 08 Ocak 2023. Web: https://ennahdha-memory.com/ يان_توضيحي_من_حركة_الاتجاه_الاسلامي_حول_الاعتقالات_الجديدة/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0. Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “تحية النضال والصمود لشعبنا البطل، باريس، 6 جانفي 1984 (Kahraman Halkımızın Mücadelesine ve Azmine Selam Olsun, Paris, 6 Ocak 1984).” Erişim: 14 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha- memory.com/بيان_حول_احداث_الخبز-25جانفي1984/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “الذكرى الرابعة لحركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 6 يونيو 1985 بيان (İEH’nin Dördüncü Yıldönümü Deklarasyonu, 6 Haziran 1985).” Erişim: 10 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha- memory.com/بيان_ذكرى_التأسيس_6_جوان1985/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#lg=1&slide=3. Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “بيان حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 02 مارس 1988 (İEH Deklarasyonu, 2 Mart 1988).” Erişim: 10 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha- memory.com/بيان_حركة_الاتجاه_الاسلامي_02_مارس_1988/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 4 مارس 1988 بيان (İEH Deklarasyonu, 4 Mart 1988).” Erişim: 7 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha-memory.com/بيان_حركة_الاتجاه_الاسلامي_04_مارس_1988/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “بيان حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 9 مارس 1988 (İEH Deklarasyonu, 9 Mart 1988).” Erişim: 14 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha- memory.com/بيان_حركة_الاتجاه_الاسلامي_09_مارس_1988/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “بيان حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 10 مارس 1988 (İEH Deklarasyonu, 10 Mart 1988).” Erişim: 08 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha- memory.com/بيان_حركة_الاتجاه_الاسلامي_10_مارس_1988/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Ennahdha Memory Veritabanı. “بيان الذكرى السابعة لحركة الاتجاه الإسلامي, 6 جوان 1988 (İEH’nin Yedinci Yıldönümü Deklarasyonu, 6 Haziran 1988).” Erişim: 12 Ocak 2023. https://ennahdha-memory.com/بيانات_1988/بيانات_الاتجاه_الإسلامي_و_النهضة_#gsc.tab=0.
• Gamson, William A., Bruce Fireman, and Steven Rytina. Encounters with Unjust Authority. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1982.
• Gsuma, Gsuma. “مجاز في تاريخ الحركة السياسية ذات الهوية العربية الإسلامية بتونس) (Tunus’ta Arap-İslamcı Kimliğe Sahip Siyasi Hareketin Tarihinin Özeti).” içinde حركة النهضة التونسية: من السجون والمنافي إلى سرة الحكم (Tunus En-Nahda Hareketi: Hapishaneler ve Sürgünden İktidarın Merkezine), Abdel-Dayem Numi (Editör), 11–27. Tunus: El-Burak Basımevi, 2011.
• Hamdi, Mohamed Elhachmi. The Politicisation of Islam: A Case Study of Tunisia. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998.
• Ikhwan Wiki Veritabanı. “البيان التأسيسي لحركة الإتجاه الإسلامي (EH’nin Kuruluş Bildirisi).” Erişim: (05 Eylül 2022. https://www.ikhwanwiki.com/index.php?title= البيان_التأسيسي_لحركة_الإتجاه_الإسلامي_بتونس_"النهضة".
• İmami, Abdullah (عبد الله امامي). تنفيذ الإرهاب في العالم الإسلامي: أنموذج النهضة (İslam Dünyasında Terörün İnfazı: Nahda Modeli). Tunus: Ed-Dar Et-Tunisi li En-Nashr, 1992.
• Jenkins, J. Craig. “Resource Mobilization Theory and the study of social movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 9, 1 (1983): 527-553. Jeribi, Jalloul (جلول الجريبي). الهوية في تونس العهد الجديد (Tunus'ta Kimlik, Yeni Dönem). Tunus: El-Vikala Et-Tunisiyye li El-İttisal El-Hariji, 1992.
• Karawan, Ibrahim A. “Political Parties Between State Power and Islamist Opposition.” in Between the State and Islam, C.E. Butterworth and I.W. Zartman (Editors), 158- 183. Washington and Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• Keddie, Nikki R. “The Islamist movement in Tunisia.” Maghreb Review 1, 1 (1986): 26– 39.
• Mabrouk, Mehdi. “Tunisia: The Radicalisation of Religious Policy.” in Islamist Radicalisation in North Africa: Politics and Process, Goerge Joffe (Editor), 48-70. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
• Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. “The Islamic challenge in North Africa.” Terrorism and Political Violence 8, 2 (1996): 171-188.
• Maktuf, Lütfi. Tunus'u Kurtarmak: Çalınan Arap Baharı. Çev. Fikret Erkut Emcioğlu. İstanbul: Modus Kitap, 2013.
• McAdam, Doug. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930– 1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
• McAdam, Doug. “Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions.” in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements/Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, D.McAdam, J.McCarthy, and M.Zald (Editors), 23–40. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
• McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. “Introduction: Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Framing Processes – Toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movements.” in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements/Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, D.McAdam, J.McCarthy, and M.Zald (Editors), 1-20. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• McCarthy, John and Mayer N. Zald. “Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory.” American Journal of Sociology 82 (1977): 1212-1241. McCarthy, Rory. “Re-thinking secularism in post-independence Tunisia.” The Journal of North African Studies 19, 5 (2014): 733-750.
• McCarthy, Rory. Inside Tunisia’s al-Nahda, Between Politics and Preaching. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
• McCarthy, Rory. “Islamism, party change, and strategic conciliation: Evidence from Tunisia.” Party Politics 0, 0 (2023): 1–11.
• Meyer, David S. “Protest and political opportunities.” Annual Review of Sociology, 30 (2004): 125-145.
• Mohammad, Haifa A. (هيفاء احمد محمد). “الاسلاميون في تونس بين المعارضة والسلطة Tunus’ta Muhalefet ve İktidar Arasında İslamcılar).” دراسات دولية (Diraset Düveliyye) 58 (2013): 19-48.
• Murphy, Emma C. Economic and Political Change in Tunisia: From Bourguiba to Ben Ali. London: Macmillan Press, 1999.
• Okruhlik, Gwenn. “Making Conversation Permissible: Islamism and Reform in Saudi Arabia.” in Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach, Quintan Wiktorowicz (Editor), 250–269. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.
• Partrick, Neil. “Tunisia.” in Europa Regional Surveys of the World, The Middle East And North Africa 2013, Christopher Matthews, Helen Canton, Philip McIntyre and Iain Frame (Editors) (59th Edition), 1087-1130. New York: Routledge, 2012.
• Passy, Florence. “Social Networks Matter. But How?” in Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action, M.Diani and D.McAdam (Editors), 21-48. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
• Perkins, Kenneth. “Playing the Islamic Card: The Use and Abuse of Religion in Tunisian Politics.” in The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects, Nouri Gana (Editor), 58-80. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 2013.
• Perkins, Kenneth. A History of Modern Tunisia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
• Ritter, Daniel P. The Iron Cage of Liberalism: International Politics and Unarmed Revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
• Rogler, Lutz. “Harakat An-Nahda and Islamic Movements in Tunisia.” in Islamic Movements of Europe: Public Religion and Islamophobia in the Modern World, Frank Peter and Rafael Ortega (Editors), 50-58. London: I.B.Tauris, 2014.
• Shahin, Emad Eldin. Political Ascent: Contemporary Islamic Movements in North Africa (State, Culture, and Society in Arab North Africa). Colorado: Westview Press, 1997.
• Tarrow, Sidney. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• Tilly, Charles. From Mobilization To Revolution. Mass: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1978.
• Tilly, Charles. Social Movements, 1768-2004. Paradigm Publishers, 2004. Touraine, Alain. Return of the Actor: Social Theory in Postindustrial Society. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988.
• Walton, John and David Seddon. Riot and Rebellion: Political Responses to Economic Crisis in North Africa, Tunisia, Morocco and Sudan. Norwich: School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia, 1986.
• Waltz, Susan. “The Islamists challenge in Tunisia,” Journal of Arab Affairs 3 (1984): 99- 105.
• Waltz, Susan. “Islamist appeal in Tunisia.” Middle East Journal 40, 4 (1986): 651-670. Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. “Interests, Ideas, and Islamist Outreach in Egypt.” in Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach, Quintan Wiktorowicz (Editor), 231-249. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.
• Willis, Michael J. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Wolf, Anne. Political Islam in Tunisia, The History of al-Nahda. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
• Younes, Kamel Ben (كمال بن يونس). الإسلاميون والعلمانيون في تونس: من السجون والاضطهاد إلى تحدي حكم البلاد (Tunus'ta İslamcılar ve Laikler: Hapishanelerden ve Zulümden Ülkeyi Yönetme Sınamasına). Tunus: Barek Yayın ve Dağıtım, 2012. Yousfi, Hela. Trade Unions and Arab Revolutions: The Tunisian Case of the UGTT. London: Routledge, 2018.
• Zahreddine, Saleh (صالح زهر الدين). الحركات والاحزاب الاسلامية وفهم الاخر (İslamcı Hareketler ve Partiler ve Ötekini Anlamak). Beyrut: Dar al-Safi, 2012.
• Zald, Mayer and John McCarthy. Social Conflict and Social Movements. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987.
• Zhang, Chuchu. Islamist Party Mobilization, Tunisia’s Ennahda and Algeria’s HMS Compared, 1989–2014. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.