Parental Emotional Availability and Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Difficulties in Emotion Regulation

Abstract

This study investigates the mediating role of difficulties in emotion regulation in the relationship between the emotional availability of university students’ parents and university students’ well-being. The study group comprised 541 university students. Study data were collected using the Emotional Availability of Parents Scale, the PERMA Scale, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, and a personal information form. We tested the mediating role of difficulties in emotion regulation in the relationship between the emotional availability of university students’ parents and university students’ well-being via structural equation modeling. The findings showed that difficulties in emotion regulation play a partial mediating role in the relationship between the mother’s emotional availability and well-being. However, difficulties in emotion regulation do not play a role in the relationship between the father’s emotional availability and well-being. While the father’s emotional availability does not predict difficulties in emotion regulation at a statistically significant level, the mother’s emotional availability statistically predicts difficulties in emotion regulation in the negative direction. Furthermore, the emotional availability of both parents statistically predicts university students’ wellbeing in a positive way.

Keywords

• parental emotional availability
• well-being
• difficulties in emotion regulation
• university students

References

1. Alsubaie, M. M., Stain, H. J., Webster, L. A. D., & Wadman, R. (2019). The role of sources of social support on depression and quality of life for university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 24(4), 484-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1568887
2. Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1984). The effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness-of-fit indices for maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49(2), 155–173. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf02294170
3. Arslan, Ü., & Asıcı, E. (2022). The mediating role of solution focused thinking in relation between mindfulness and psychological well-being in university students. Current Psychology, 41(11), 8052-8061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01251-9
4. Bandalos, D. L. (2002). The effects of item parceling on goodness-of-fit and parameter estimate bias in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(1), 78–102. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0901_5
5. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
6. Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional availability: Conceptualization and research findings. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087711
7. Biringen, Z., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2012). Emotional availability: Concept, research, and window on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 24(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000617
8. Biringen, Z., Derscheid, D., Vliegen, N., Closson, L., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2014). Emotional availability (EA): Theoretical background, empirical research using the EA scales, and clinical applications. Developmental Review, 34(2), 114–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.01.002

9. Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526
10. Chen, T., & Lucock, M. (2022). The mental health of university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: An online survey in the UK. Plos One, 17(1), e0262562. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262562
11. Clay, D., Coates, E., Tran, Q., & Phares, V. (2017). Fathers' and mothers' emotional accessibility and youth's developmental outcomes. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 45(2), 111-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2017.1303651
12. Çelik, G. (2016). “Men (Also) cry!”: The construction of masculinity and the cycle of violence in the context of gender roles. Fe Journal, 8(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1501/Fe0001_0000000161
13. Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010). Multivariate SPSS and LISREL applications for social sciences. Pegem Publishing.
14. Cole, D. A. (1987). Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(4), 584-594. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.4.584
15. Costello, M. A., Nagel, A. G., Hunt, G. L., Rivens, A. J., Hazelwood, O. A., Pettit, C., & Allen, J. P. (2022). Facilitating connection to enhance college student well‐being: Evaluation of an experiential group program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 70, 314-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/ ajcp.12601
16. De Coninck, D., Matthijs, K., & Luyten, P. (2019). Subjective well-being among first-year university students: A two-wave prospective study in Flanders, Belgium. Student Success, 10(1), 33-46. https://doi.org/10.5204/ssj.v10i1.642
17. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1
18. Demirci, İ., Ekşi, H., Dinçer, D., & Kardaş, S. (2017). Five-dimensional model of well-being: The validity and reliability of Turkish version of PERMA-Profiler. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 5(1), 60-77. https://tr-scales.arabpsychology.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/perma-olcegi-toad.pdf
19. Dessauvagie, A. S., Dang, H. M., Nguyen, T. A. T., & Groen, G. (2022). Mental health of university students in southeastern Asia: a systematic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 34(2-3), 172-181. https://doi.org/10.1177/10105395211055545
20. Dias-Lopes, L. F., Chaves, B. M., Fabrício A., et  al. (2020). Analysis of well-being and anxiety among university students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113874.
21. Dodd, R. H., Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., McCaffery, K. J., & Pickles, K. (2021). Psychological wellbeing and academic experience of university students in Australia during COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18030866
22. Duffy, A., Saunders, K. E., Malhi, G. S., Patten, S., Cipriani, A., McNevin, S. H., MacDonald, E., & Geddes, J. (2019). Mental health care for university students: a way forward?. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(11), 885-887. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2215-0366(19)30275-5
23. Easterbrooks, M. A., & Biringen, Z. (2000). Guest editors' introduction to the special issue: Mapping the terrain of emotional availability and attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 2(2), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730050085518
24. Emde, R. N. (1998). Early emotional development: New modes of thinking for research and intervention. In J. G. Warhol (Eds.), New perspectives in early emotional development (pp. 29-45). Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Institute, Ltd.
25. Emde, R., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (1985). Assessing emotional availability in early development. In W. K. Frankenburg, R. N. Emde, & J. W. Sullivan (Eds.), Early identication of children at risk (pp. 79–102). Plenum.
26. Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. (1999). Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 56-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540119
27. Ferrari, L., Ranieri, S., Barni., D., & Rosnati, R. (2015). Parent–child relationship and adoptees’ psychological well-being in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Disentangling maternal and paternal contribution. Family Science, 6(1), 77-86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424620.2015.1081005
28. Field, T. (1994). The effects of mother's physical and emotional unavailability on emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 208–227. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166147
29. Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). Mc Graw Hill.
30. Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 350–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.350
31. George, D., & Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference (10a ed.). Pearson.
32. Gökçe, G., & Yılmaz, B. (2018). Emotional availability of parents and psychological health: what does mediate this relationship?.  Journal of Adult Development, 25, 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-017-9273-x
33. Gonzales, J. L. A., Lanchipa-Ale, A. P., Puma, E. G. M., Mansilla, E. B. R., & Laura, P. A. S. (2022). Positive dimensions of mental health and personality in a sample of university. Journal of Medicinal and Chemical Sciences, 5(7), 1215-1223. https://doi.org/10.26655/JMCHEMSCI.2022.7.10
34. Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.001
35. Greenberg, L. S. (2017). Emotion-focused therapy (Revised ed.). American Psychological Association.
36. Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198
37. Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In M. Levis., J. M., HavilandJones., ve L. Feldman- Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 497-512). Guilford Press.
38. Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
39. Gross, J. J., & Munoz, R. F. (1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2(2), 151-164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1995.tb00036.x
40. Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Eds.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–24). Guilford Press.
41. Helion, C., Krueger, S. M., & Ochsner, K. N. (2019). Emotion regulation across the life span. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 163(3), 257–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978- 0-12-804281-6.00014-8
42. Hernández-Torrano, D., Ibrayeva, L., Sparks, J., Lim, N., Clementi, A., Almukhambetova, A., Nurtayev, Y., & Muratkyzy, A. (2020). Mental health and well-being of university students: A bibliometric mapping of the literature. Frontiers in Psychology. 11: 1226. https:// doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.2020.01226/XML/NLM
43. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
44. Ince, Ş. I. (2020). The investigation of the mediating role of rejection sensitivity and emotion regulation difficulties in the relationship between perceived parental acceptance-rejection and psychological symptoms in university students [Unpublished master thesis]. Hacettepe University.
45. International Youth Foundation., Hilton. (2017). Global youth well-being index. https://www.youthindex.org/full-report
46. John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301–1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004. 00298.x
47. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2017). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theories and applications (Classic ed.). Routledge.
48. Kavcıoğlu, F. C., & Gençöz, T. (2011). Psychometric characteristics of difficulties in emotion regulation scale in a Turkish sample: New suggestions. Unpublished raw data.
49. Kelek, Ş. (2020). The predictors of emotion regulation: Meta emotion, mood and emotional availability of parents [Unpublished master thesis]. Hacettepe University.
50. Kline, R. B. (2005). Principle and practice of structural equation modelling (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
51. Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 343-354. https://doi/10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343
52. Kubicek, L. F., Riley, K., Coleman, J., Miller, G., & Linder, T. (2013). Assessing the emotional quality of parent–child relationships involving young children with special needs: Applying the constructs of emotional availability and expressed emotion. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34(3), 242–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21384
53. Lamb, M. E., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2004). The role of the father: An introduction. In M. E. Lamb (Eds.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 1–31). John Wiley & Sons Inc.
54. Leahy, R. L., Tirch, D., & Napolitano, L. A. (2011). Emotion regulation in psychotherapy. Guilford Press.
55. Lum, J. J., & Phares, V. (2005). Assessing the emotional availability of parents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 27(3), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-0637-3
56. Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psychological birth of the human infant. Basic Books.
57. Mendoza, M. D. C., Queija, I. S.i., & Jim´enez, A´ . P. (2019). The role of parents in emerging adults’ psychological well-being: A personoriented approach. Family Process, 58, 954–971. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12388
58. Nyklíček, I., Vingerhoets, A., & Zeelenberg, M. (2011). Emotion regulation and wellbeing: A view from different angles. In I. Nyklíček., A. Vingerhoets., & M. Zeelenberg (Eds.), Emotion regulation and well-being (pp. 1-13). Springer.
59. Oppenheim, D. (2012). Emotional availability: Research advances and theoretical questions. Development and Psychopathology, 24(1), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000721
60. Özbiler, Ş. (2020). Resilience as the mediator role of the relationship between emotional availability of fathers and subjective well-being of emerging adults. Studies in Psychology, 40(2), 514-531. https://doi.org/10.26650/SP2019-0075
61. Özdoğan, A. Ç. (2020). The mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between parental emotional availability, romantic relationship quality, and social connectedness and well-being. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 52, 59-85. https://doi.org/10.9779.pauefd.770592
62. Parker, J., Yacoub, A., Mughal, S., & Mamari, F. (2023). Family support and psychological distress among commuter college students. Journal of American College Health, 71(2), 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1895805
63. Pektaş, E. (2015). The investigation of the relationship between perceived parental acceptance-rejection and depression and trait anxiety of university students: The mediator role of emotion regulation [Unpublished master thesis]. Hacettepe University.
64. Porru, F., Schuring, M., Bültmann, U., Portoghese, I., Burdorf, A., & Robroek, S. J. (2022). Associations of university student life challenges with mental health and self-rated health: A longitudinal study with 6 months follow-up. Journal of Affective Disorders, 296, 250-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j jad.2021.09.057
65. Punia, N., & Malaviya, R. (2015). Psychological well-being of first year college students. Indian Journal of Educational Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(1), 60-68.
66. Rand, K. L., Shanahan, M. L., Fischer, I. C., & Fortney, S. K. (2020). Hope and optimism as predictors of academic performance and subjective well-being in college students. Learning and Individual Differences, 81, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101906
67. Ratanasiripong, P., China, T., & Toyama, S. (2018). Mental health and well-being of University Students in Okinawa. Education Research International, 2018, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4231836
68. Rea-Sandin, G., Vasquez-O'Brien, T. C., & Lemery-Chalfant, K. (2020). The protective role of parent positive personality and emotional availability in toddler problem behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 66(3), 227-251. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.66.3.0227
69. Roksa, J., & Kinsley, P. (2019). The role of family support in facilitating academic success of low-income students. Research in Higher Education, 60, 415-436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9517-z
70. Rugancı, R. N., & Gençöz, T. (2010). Psychometric properties of a Turkish version of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(4), 442-455. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20665
71. Saunders, H., Kraus, A., Barone, L., & Biringen, Z. (2015). Emotional availability: Theory, research, and intervention. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01069
72. Saxena, P., Dubey, A., & Pandey, R. (2011). Role of emotion regulation difficulties in predicting mental health and well-being. Journal of Projective Psychology ve Mental Health, 18(2), 147-155. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-21803-003
73. Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (1996). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
74. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
75. Shaw, B. A., Krause, N., & Chatters, L. M. (2004). Emotional support from parents early in life, aging, and health. Psychology and Aging, 19(1), 4– 12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.4
76. Şimşek, Ö. F. (2007). Introduction to structural equation modeling. Ekinoks Publishing.
77. Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25(2), 173-180. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4
78. Stevenson, J. C., Millings, A., & Emerson, L. M. (2019). Psychological well-being and coping: The predictive value of adult attachment, dispositional mindfulness, and emotion regulation. Mindfulness, 10(2), 256-271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0970-8
79. Sümer, N. (2000). Structural equation modeling: Basic concepts and applications. Turkish Psychological Articles, 3(6), 49-74.
80. Thompson, R. A., & Goodman, M. (2010). Development of emotion regulation: More than meets the eye. In A. M. Kring & D. M. Sloan (Eds.), Emotion regulation and psychopathology (pp. 38–58). The Guilford Press.
81. Turkish Statistical Institute. (2020, February). Life satisfaction survey, 2019 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Yasam-Memnuniyeti-Arastirmasi-2019-33729#:~:text=Mutlu%20oldu
82. Turkish Statistical Institute. (2021, February). Life satisfaction survey, 2020 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Yasam-Memnuniyeti-Arastirmasi-2020-37209
83. Turkish Statistical Institute. (2022, February). Life satisfaction survey, 2021 https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Yasam-Memnuniyeti-Arastirmasi-2021-45832
84. Volling, B. L., McElwain, N. L., Notaro, P. C., & Herrera, C. (2002). Parents' emotional availability and infant emotional competence: Predictors of parent-infant attachment and emerging self-regulation. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 447–465. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.447
85. Westberg, K. H., Nyholm, M., Nygren, J. M., & Svedberg, P. (2022). Mental health problems among young people—a scoping review of help-seeking. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031430
86. White, R., & Renk, K. (2012). Externalizing behavior problems during adolescence: An ecological perspective. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(1), 158-171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9459-y
87. Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022511
88. World Health Organization. (2001). Strengthening mental health promotion. Geneva, World health organization (Fact sheet no. 220). https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response
89. Worsley, J. D., Pennington, A., & Corcoran, R. (2022). Supporting mental health and wellbeing of university and college students: A systematic review of review-level evidence of interventions. PLoS one, 17(7), e0266725. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266725
90. Yüksel, H. (2020). The effect of adults' perceptions of their parents' emotional availability and past interparental conflicts on their current emotion regulation difficulties [Unpublished master thesis]. Bilgi University.
91. Ziv, Y., Umphlet, K. L. C., Olarte, S., & Venza, J. (2018). Early childhood trauma in high-risk families: Associations with caregiver emotional availability and insightfulness, and children’s social information processing and social behavior. Attachment & Human Development, 20(3), 309–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2018.1446738