Scale for Identifying Overexcitability in Gifted Children: Reliability and Validity Study

Year 2026, Volume: 16 Issue: 80, 127 - 146, 27.03.2026

Belgin Bağrıaçık , Sait Burak Yılmaz , Oğuzhan Güler , Duygu Mutlu Bayraktar , Marilena Leana Taşcılar

https://doi.org/10.17066/tpdrd.1679500

https://izlik.org/JA77XB99CM

Abstract

This study aims to develop a valid and reliable instrument to measure the overexcitabilities of gifted individuals. Participants comprised 584 gifted students from Science and Art Centers across Turkey during the 2023-2024 academic year. Data were gathered using the draft Overexcitability Areas Identification Scale (33 items) and a Personal Information Form. Validity was assessed through face, content, and construct validity, while reliability was determined using Cronbach’s alpha and item discrimination indices. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses (EFA and CFA) were performed on separate samples (300 for EFA, 284 for CFA). Following EFA, nine items were removed. The CFA results demonstrated good fit: χ²/df = 1.856, RMSEA = 0.055, NFI = 0.85, IFI = 0.92, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91. The final 21-item, five-factor scale demonstrated strong reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.83; McDonald’s Omega ω = 0.80) and validity for assessing the overexcitabilities of gifted middle school students. The results demonstrate that the instrument can serve as a reliable screening and support planning tool within SACs to identify overexcitability profiles of gifted students.

Keywords

Overexcitability , gifted students , scale development , validity , reliability

References

• Akindipe, O. O. (2024). From intelligence to achievement: the role of the socio-cultural environment of underrepresented minority students. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1495434 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1495434
• Alexopoulou, A., Batsou, A., & Drigas, A. (2020). Stress, anxiety & mental health problems in gifted adolescents. Psychologıcal Dısorders and Research, 3(3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.31487/j.PDR.2020.03.03
• Al-Hroub, A., & Krayem, M. (2020). Overexcitabilities and ADHD in gifted adolescents in Jordan: Empirical evidence. Roeper Review, 42(4), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2020.1815264
• Al-Onizat, S. H. (2013). The psychometric properties of a Jordanian version of Overexcitability Questionnaire-Two, OEQII. Creative Education, 4(1), 49–61. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.41008
• Bouchard, L. L. (2004). An instrument for the measure of Dabrowskian overexcitabilities to identify gifted elementary students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 48(4), 339–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620404800407
• Bouchet, N., & Falk, R. F. (2001). The relationship among giftedness, gender, and overexcitability. Gifted Child Quarterly, 45(4), 260-267. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620104500404
• Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2024). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı [Data analysis handbook for social sciences]. (31th ed.). Pegem Akademi Publishing.
• Chang, H. J., & Kuo, C. (2013). Overexcitabilities: Empirical studies and application. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.010
• Child, D. (2006). The essentials of factor analysis. Continuum.
• Comrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (2016). A First course in factor analysis (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Çetin, A. (2019). Dikkat eksikliği, hiperaktivite bozukluğu ve üstün yetenekliliğe ilişkin ayırıcı davranışlar [Bildiri Sunumu]. Differential behaviors related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and giftedness [Paper presentation]. I. Uluslararası İktisat, İşletme ve Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi (ECONDER), Karabük, Türkiye.
• Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Little, Brown.
• Dabrowski, K. (1972). Psychoneurosis is not an illness: Psychoneuroses and positive disintegration. Gryf Publications.
• Dabrowski, K., & Piechowski, M. M. (1977). Theory of levels of emotional development Oceanside.Dabor Sceince.
• Daniels, S., & Meckstroth, E. (2009). Nurturing the sensitivity, intensity, and developmental potential of young gifted children. In S. Daniels & M. M. Piechowski (Eds.), Living With Intensity (pp. 33-56).
• Davis, L. L. (1992). Instrument review: Getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5, 194–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4
• De Bondt, N., & Van Petegem, P. (2015). Psychometric evaluation of the Overexcitability Questionnaire-Two applying Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM) and multiple-group BSEM-based alignment with approximate measurement invariance. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1963. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01963
• DeVellis, R. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
• Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
• Falk, R. F., Lind, S., Miller, N. B., Piechowski, M. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1999). The Overexcitabilities Questionnaire-Two (OEQII). Institute for the Study of Advanced Development.
• Falk, R. F., & Miller, N. B. (2009). Building firm foundations: Research and assessments. In S. Daniels & M. M. Piechowski (Eds.), Living with intensity: Understanding the sensitivity, excitability, and emotional development of gifted children, adolescents, and adults (pp. 239–259). Great Potential Press.
• Falk, R. F., Yakmaci-Guzel, B., Chang, A. H., Pardo, R., & Chavez-Eakle, R. A. (2008). Measuring overexcitability: Replication across five countries. In S. Mendaglio (Ed.), Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration (pp. 183–199). Great Potential Press.
• Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS (3rd Edition). Sage Publications.
• Fiori, M., Vesely-Maillefer, A. K., Nicolet-Dit-Félix, M., & Gillioz, C. (2023). With great sensitivity comes great management: How emotional hypersensitivity can be the superpower of emotional ıntelligence. Journal of Intelligence, 11(10), 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11100198
• Fonseca, C. (2024). Emotional intensity in gifted students: Helping kids cope with explosive feelings (3th ed.). Routledge.
• Fung, W. K., & Chung, K. K. H. (2022). Overexcitabilities and creative potential in the kindergarten context: The mediating role of children's playfulness. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 46(1):101197 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101197
• Gelbar, N. W., Cascio, A. A., Madaus, J. W., & Reis, S. M. (2022). A systematic review of the research on gifted individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Gifted Child Quarterly, 66(4), 266-276. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862211061876
• Gillioz, C., Nicolet-dit-Félix, M., & Fiori, M. (2023). Emotional intelligence and emotional hypersensitivity in gifted individuals. Journal of Intelligence, 11(2), 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11020020
• Guthrie, K. H. (2019). “Nothing is ever easy”: Parent perceptions of ıntensity in their gifted adolescent children. The Qualitative Report, 24(8), 2080-2101. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2019.3598
• Hambleton, R. K., Merenda, P. F., & Spielberger, C. D. (Eds.). (2005). Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Harrison, G. E., & Van Haneghan, J. P. (2011). The gifted and the shadow of the night: Dabrowski's overexcitabilities and their correlation to insomnia, death anxiety, and fear of the unknown. Journal of Education of the Gifted, 34(4), 669–697. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235321103400407
• He W.J., Wong W.C., & Chan M.K. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A Dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006
• He, W. J., & Wong, W. C. (2014). Greater male variability in overexcitabilities: Domain-specific patterns. Personality and Individual Differences, 66(1), 27-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.002
• Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424
• Hutcheson, G., & Sofroniou, N. (1999). The multivariate social scientist: Introductory statistics using generalized linear models. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028075 International Test Commission (ITC). (2017). The ITC Guidelines for Translating and Adapting Tests (Second Edition). Retrived from https://www.intestcom.org/files/guideline_test_adaptation_2ed.pdf
• Kağıtçıbaşı, C. (2007). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Kaplan-Sayı, A. (2018). Gifted children and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity relation. Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 14(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.17860/mersinefd.320229
• Karwowski, M., Czerwonka, M., Wiśniewska, E., & Forthmann, B. (2021). How is intelligence test performance associated with creative achievement? A meta-analysis. Journal of Intelligence, 9(2), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020028
• Kılıç, A. F. (2022). Ölçek geliştirme sürecinde açımlayıcı faktör analizi [Exploratory factor analysis in scale development process]. In M. Acar Güvendir & Y. Özer Özkan (Eds.), Tüm yönleriyle ölçek geliştirme süreci [Scale development process in all aspects] (1st ed., pp. 69–126). Pegem Akademi.
• Limont, W., Dreszer-Drogorób, J., Bedynska, S., Sliwinska, K., & Jastrzebska, D. (2014). ’Old wine in new bottles’? Relationships between overexcitabilities, the Big Five personality traits and giftedness in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 69, 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.003
• Lind, S. (2001). Overexcitability and the gifted. The SENG Newsletter, 1, 3-6. Retrieved from http://sengifted.org/archives/articles/overexcitability-and-the-gifted
• Lysy, K. Z., & Piechowski, M. M. (1983). Personal growth: An empirical study using Jungian and Dabrowskian measures. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 108(2), 267–320.
• Marcoulides, G., & Schumacher, R. (2001). New developments and techniques in structural equation modelling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Mendaglio, S. (2022). Overexcitability research: Implications for the theory of positive disintegration and the field of gifted education. SENG Journal: Exploring the Psychology of Giftedness, 1(2), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.25774/16cy-5b24
• Mendaglio, S., & Tillier, W. (2006). Dąbrowski’s Theory of positive disintegration and giftedness: Overexcitability research findings. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30(1), 68–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320603000104
• Moon, J. H., & Montgomery, D. (2005). Profiles of overexcitabilities for Korean high school gifted students according to gender and domain of study. Journal of Gifted/Talented Education, 15, 1–10.
• Nelson, A. E., DeVellis, R. F., Renner, J. B., Schwartz, T. A., Conaghan, P. G., Kraus, V. B., & Jordan, J. M. (2011). Quantification of the whole-body burden of radiographic osteoarthritis using factor analysis. Arthritis Research & Therapy, 13(5), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/ar3501
• Noar, S. M. (2003). The role of structural equation modeling in scale development. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10(4), 622–647. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1004_8
• Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (7th. ed.). Open University Press.
• Piechowski, M. M. (1999). Overexcitabilities. In Encyclopedia of Creativity (Vol. 2, pp. 325–334). Academic Press.
• Piechowski, M. M. (2008). Discovering Dąbrowskiʼs theory. In S. Mendaglio (Ed.), Dabrowskiʼs theory of positive disintegration (pp. 41–77). Great Potential Press.
• Piechowski, M. M., & Colangelo, N. (1984). Developmental potential of the gifted. Gifted Child Quarterly, 28(2), 80-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698628402800207
• Piechowski, M. M., & Miller, N. B. (1995). Assessing developmental potential in gifted children: A comparison of methods. Roeper Review, 17(3), 176-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783199509553654
• Piechowski, M. M., & Wells, C. (2021). Reexamining overexcitability: A framework for understanding intense experience. In T. L. Cross & J. R. Cross (Eds.) Handbook for counselors serving students with gifts & talents (pp. 63-83). Routledge.
• Piirto, J. (2004). Scottsdale. Great Potential Press.
• Piirto, J., & Fraas, J. (2012). A Mixed-methods comparison of vocational and ıdentified-gifted high school students on the overexcitability questionnaire. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35(1), 3-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353211433792
• Piirto, J., Montgomery, D., & May, J. (2008). A comparison of Dabrowski's overexcitabilities by gender for American and Korean high school gifted students. High Ability Studies, 19(2), 141-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598130802504080
• Pohlmann, J. T. (2004). Use and interpretation of factor analysis in the Journal of Educational Research: 1992–2002. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.1.14-23
• Rinn, A. N., & Reynolds, M. J. (2012). Overexcitabilities and ADHD in the gifted: An examination. Roeper Review, 34(1), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2012.627551
• Roeper, A. (2009). The emperor has no clothes: Exquisite perception, stress, and the gifted child. In S. Daniels & M. M. Piechowski (Eds.), Living with intensity: Understanding the sensitivity, excitability, and emotional development of gifted children, adolescents, and adults (pp. 73–82). Great Potential Press.
• Seçer, İ. (2018). Psikolojik test geliştirme ve uyarlama süreci: SPSS ve LISREL ile faktör analizi uygulamaları [Psychological test development and adaptation process: Factor analysis applications with SPSS and LISREL] (2nd ed.). Anı Publishing.
• Silverman, L. K. (2009). My Love Affair With Dabrowski’s Theory: A Personal Odyssey. Roeper Review, 31(3), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190902993912
• Siu, A. F. Y. (2010). Comparing overexcitabilities of gifted and non-gifted school children in Hong Kong: Does culture make a difference? Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188790903503601
• Smith, S. J. (2006). The influence of gender and country of origin on the overexcitabilities of American and Korean high school students with high ability [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Oklahoma State University.
• Sümer, N. (2000). Yapisal eşitlik modelleri: Temel kavramlar ve örnek uygulamalar [Structural Equation Modeling: Basic Concepts and Applications]. Türk Psikoloji Yazilari, 3(6), 49–74.
• Sword, L. (2003). Gifted children: Emotionally immature or emotionally intense? Gifted, 123, 14-17.
• Sword, L. K., & Director, G. (2005). Emotional intensity in gifted children. Retrieved from https://giftedservices.com.au/
• Tavşancıl, E. (2019). Tutumların ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile veri analizi. [Measurement of attitudes and data analysis with SPSS] (6th ed.). Nobel Publishing.
• Tavşancıl, E., & Keser, H. (2002). İnternet kullanımına yönelik Likert tipi bir tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi [The development of a Likert-type attitude scale towards internet use]. Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1501/Egifak_0000000043
• Tieso, C. L. (2007). Patterns of overexcitabilities in identified gifted students and their parents: A hierarchical model. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51, 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986206296657
• Tourreix, E., Besançon, M., & Gonthier, C. (2023). Non-cognitive specificities of intellectually gifted children and adolescents: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Intelligence, 11(7), 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11070141
• Treat, A. R. (2006). Overexcitability in gifted sexually diverse populations. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17(4), 244-257. https://doi.org/10.4219/jsge-2006-413
• Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Tanzer, N. K. (2004). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: An overview. European Review of Applied Psychology, 54(2), 119–135.
• Van den Broeck, W., Hofmans, J., Cooremans, S., & Staels, E. (2014). Factorial validity and measurement invariance across intelligence levels and gender of the Overexcitabilities Questionnaire-II (OEQ-II). Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034475
• Viladrich, C., Angulo-Brunet, A., & Doval, E. (2017). A journey around alpha and omega to estimate internal consistency reliability. Anales de Psicología / Annals of Psychology, 33(3), 755–782. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.33.3.268401
• Warne, R. T. (2011). An investigation of measurement invariance across genders on the Overexcitability Questionnaire–Two. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(4), 578–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X11414821
• Webb, J. T. (2008). Dabrowski’s theory and existential depression in gifted children and adults. In Eighth International Congress of the Institute for Positive Disintegration in Human Development, August (pp. 7-9).
• Webb, J. T., Amend, E. R., Webb, N. E., Goerss, J., Beljan, P., & Olenchak, F. R. (2005). Misdiagnosis and Dual Diagnoses of Gifted Children and Adults: ADHD, Bipolar, Ocd, Asperger’s, Depression, and Other Disorders. Great Potential Press.
• Wellisch, M. (2024). Giftedness and the overexcitability Rabbit-Hole Trap. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 33(2), 57-66. https://doi.org/10.21505/ajge.2024.0014
• Winkler, D., & Voight, A. (2016). Giftedness and overexcitability: Investigating the relationship using meta-analysis. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60(4), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986216657588
• Wirthwein, L., & Rost, D. H. (2011). Focussing on overexcitabilities: Studies with intellectually gifted and academically talented adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 337-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.041
• Wirthwein, L., Becker, C. V., Loehr, E. M., & Rost, D. H. (2011). Overexcitabilities in gifted and non-gifted adults: Does sex matter? High Ability Studies, 22(2), 145-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2011.622944
• Wood, V. R., Bouchard, L., De Wit, E., Martinson, S. P., & Van Petegem, P. (2024). Prevalence of emotional, intellectual, imaginational, psychomotor, and sensual overexcitabilities in highly and profoundly gifted children and adolescents: A mixed-methods study of development and developmental potential. Education Sciences, 14(8), 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14080817
• Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The counseling psychologist, 34(6), 806-838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
• Yakmaci-Guzel, B. (2002). Üstün yeteneklilerin belirlenmesinde yardımcı yeni bir yaklaşım: Dabrowski`nin aşırıduyarlılık alanları (A new approach to help in the identification of giftedness: Dabrowski`s hypersensitivity areas) [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. İstanbul University.
• Yakmaci‐Guzel, B., & Akarsu, F. (2006). Comparing overexcitabilities of gifted and non‐gifted 10th grade students in Turkey. High Ability Studies, 17(1), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598130600947002
• Yoon, Y. H., & Moon, J. H. (2009). A comparison of the overexcitabilities: In gifted and non-gifted Korean primary-school children. Journal of Gifted/Talented Education, 19(3), 585-602