Metaphor: The Bridge Between Client and Counselor

Abstract

Metaphors are used for the transfer of inner thoughts and feelings to outside when the words are insufficient. Metaphor is principal mechanism behind abstract thought and comprehension. Unlike the traditional perspective that views the metaphors as linguistic expressions addressing indirect narrations, contemporary approaches views the metaphors as a significant and complementary part of the conceptual system. As a part of therapeutic dialogue metaphors has gained importance in constructivist approaches for directly reflecting subjective reality. Subjective knowledge obtained through experiences is placed in conceptual system. Conceptual metaphor system is mostly embodied automatically at unconscious and individual use the conceptual metaphor system unconsciously like language use. Metaphors have been important tools which has a therapeutic value since Freud and Jung. Metaphors as an enriching learning source which facilitate self-disclosure improve therapeutic alliance and collaboration. This study aims to introduce the facilitative role of conceptual metaphor in counseling process and present concrete examples regarding utilization of therapeutic metaphors. First, metaphor and conceptual metaphor were examined with abstract thinking and tacit knowledge. Later, the use of metaphor in counseling process was discussed under the subtitles of metapfor in counseling theories, therapeutic use of metaphor and examples of metaphors in group process in detail.

Keywords

• Metaphor
• conceptual metaphor
• counseling process

Metafor: Danışan ve Psikolojik Danışman Arasındaki Köprü

Abstract

Dilin ve sözcüklerin yetersiz kaldığı durumlarda bireylerin iç dünyalarına ait duygu ve düşüncelerin anlamı metaforla dış dünyaya taşınmaktadır. Metafor soyut düşünmenin ve soyut olayları kavramanın arkasındaki başlıca mekanizmadır. Metaforları sadece dolaylı anlatımı hedefleyen sözel ifadeler olarak gören geleneksel bakış açısının aksine; çağdaş yaklaşımlar metaforları kavramsal sistemin önemli ve bütünleyici bir parçası olarak görmektedirler. Terapötik diyaloğun parçası olan metaforlar öznel gerçekliği doğrudan yansıttığı için yapılandırmacı yaklaşımlar içinde önem kazanmıştır. Yaşantılardan kazanılan kişiye özgü bilgiler metaforlar aracılığıyla soyut olarak kavramsal sisteme yerleştirilir. Kavramsal metafor sistemi çoğunlukla bilinçdışında otomatik olarak oluşur ve birey dili kullandığı gibi farkına varmadan kavramsal metafor sistemini kullanır. Freud ve Jung’dan beri psikolojik danışmada metaforik dil kullanımı terapötik değeri olan önemli bir araç olarak görülmektedir. Danışanın kendini açmasını kolaylaştıran metaforlar zenginleştirici bir öğrenme kaynağı olarak terapötik çalışma uyumunu geliştirir ve işbirliğini destekler. Çalışmanın amacı kavramsal metaforun psikolojik danışma sürecindeki işlevini tanıtmak ve terapötik metafor kullanımına ilişkin somut örnekler sunmaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda ilk olarak metafor kavramı ve kavramsal metaforun ne olduğu açıklanmaktadır. Daha sonra, psikolojik danışma sürecinde metafor kullanımı, kuramsal zeminde metafor, metaforun terapötik kullanımı, grupla psikolojik danışma sürecinde metafor alt başlıklarıyla incelenmiştir.

Keywords

• metafor
• kavramsal metafor
• psikolojik danışma süreci

References

1. Aragno, A. (2009). Meaning’s vessel: A metapsychological understanding of metaphor. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 29, 30–47.
2. Babits, M. (2001). Using therapeutic metaphor to provide a holding environment: the inner edge of possibility. Clinical Social Work Journal, 29 (1), 21-33.
3. Baron, S. (2009). Metaphor and the Satir therapist. The Satir Journal, 3, 1, 49-57.
4. Berlin, R.M., Olson, M.E., Cano, C.E. ve Engel, S. (1991). Metaphor and psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, XLV (3), 359-368.
5. Botha, E. (2009). Why metaphor matters in education. South African Journal of Education, 29, 4, 431-444.
6. Bower, F. (1999). Metaphor, mysticism and madness A response to the three papers on ‘Is analytical psychology a religion?’by Storr, Shamdasani and Segal. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 44, 563–570.
7. Carmichael, K. D. (2000). Using a metaphor in working with disaster survivors. Journal of Specialists in Group Work, Vol 25 (1), 7-15.
8. Cirillo, L. ve Crider, C. (1995). Distinctive therapeutic uses of metaphor. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 32 (4), 511-519.

9. Corey, M. S ve Corey, G. (1997). Groups: Process and Practice. USA: Brooks/Cole publishing company.
10. Czander, W. (1993). The psychodynamics of work and organizations: Theory and application. New York: Guilford Press.
11. Dale, M. A. ve Lyddon, W. J. (2000). Sand play: A constructivist strategy for assessment and change. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 13, 135–154.
12. Dallos, R. (2004). Attachment narrative therapy: Integrating ideas from narrative and attachment theory in systemic family therapy with eating disorders. Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 40–65.
13. Dowd, E. T. (2006). What changes in cognitive therapy? The role of tacit knowledge structures. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 6 (2), 141-148.
14. Dwairy, M. (1997). A biopsychosocial model of metaphor therapy with holistic cultures. Clinical Psychology Review, 17 (7), 719-732.
15. Dwairy, M. (2009). Culture analysis and metaphor psychotherapy with Arab-Muslim clients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65 (2), 199-209.
16. Eckstein, D. ve Sarnoff, D. (2007). Four adlerian metaphors applied to couples counseling. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 63 (3), 322-338.
17. Erickson, M.H., Rossi, E.L. & Rossi, S.I. (1976). Hypnotic realities: The induction of clinical hypnosis and forms of indirect suggestion. New York: Irvington.
18. Giannoni, M. (2003). Jung’s theory of dreams and relational debate. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 13, 4, 605–21.
19. Giannoni, M. ve Corradi (2006). How the mind understands other minds:cognitive psychology, attachment and reflective function. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 51, 271–284.
20. Gonçalves, O. F. ve Craine, M. H. (1990). The use of metaphors in cognitive therapy. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An international Quaterly, 4, 135-149.
21. Greenberg, L. S. ve Pascual-Leone, J. (1995). A dialectical constructivist approach to experiential change. In R. A. Neimeyer & M. J. Mahoney (Eds.), Constructivism in psychotherapy (pp. 169–191). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
22. Groth-Marnat, G. (1992) Past traditions of therapeutic metaphor. Psychology, A Journal of Human Behavior, 29, 41–47.
23. Hendrix, D. H. (1992). Metaphors as nudges toward understanding in mental health counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14(2), 234-242.
24. Hoskins, M. ve Leseho, J. (1996). Changing metaphors of the self: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 3, 243-252.
25. Ingram, J. L. (1994). The role of figurative language in psychotherapy: A methodological examination. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 9, 271-288.
26. Ivey, A. E. ve Ivey, M. B. (1999). Intentional interviewing and counseling: Facilitating client development in A multicultural society. 4th edition. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
27. Johnson, M. (1987). The body in the mind . Chicago: Chicago University Press.
28. Kelly, G.A. (1991). The psychology of personal constructs: Vol. 1. A theory of personality. London: Routledge.
29. Kopp, R. R. (1995). Metaphor therapy: Using client- generated metaphor in psychotherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers.
30. Kopp, R. R. (1999). Metaphoric expressions of lifestyle: Exploring metaphors. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 55 (4), 466-473. client-generated
31. Lakoff, G. (1990). The invariance hypothesis: Is abstract reason based on image-schemas? Cognitive Linguistics, 1, 39–74.
32. Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. Second edition (pp. 202–251). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33. Lakoff, G. ve Jonhson, M. (1980). Metaphor we live by. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
34. Langer, S. K. K. (1948). Philosophy in a new key, a study in the symbolism of reason, rite and art. New York, Penguin Books.
35. Lawson, G. (2005). The hero’s journey as a developmental metaphor in counseling. Journal of Humanıstıc Counselıng, Educatıon and Development, 44, 134-144.
36. Levitt, H., Korman, Y. ve Angus, L. (2000). A metaphor analysis in treatments of depression: Metaphor as a marker of change. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 13(1), 23-35.
37. Lew, A. (2009). The suitcase metaphor: Helping couples move from fault finding to strength building. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 6 (1), 86-89.
38. Long, P.S. ve Lepper, G. (2008). Metaphor in psychoanalytic psychotherapy: A comparative study of 4 cases by a practitioner-researcher. British Journal of Psychotherapy. Vol 24(3), 343-364.
39. Lyddon, W. J., Clay, A. L. ve Sparks, C. L. (2001). Metaphor and change in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 269-274.
40. Mahoney, M. J. ve Marquis, A. (2002). Integral constructivism and dynamic systems in psychotherapy processes. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 22, 794-813.
41. Martin, J., Cummings, A. ve Hallberg, E. (1992). Therapists’ intentional use of metaphor: memorability, clinical impact, and possible epistemic/motivational functions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 143-145.
42. Mays, M. (1990) The use of metaphor in hypnotherapy and psychotherapy. Individual Psychology, 46 (4), 423-430.
43. Merriam-Webster, (2011). Metaphor, 10.02.2011 tarihinde http//www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metaphor adresinden alındı.
44. Modell, A. (2009). Metaphor: The bridge between feelings and knowledge. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 29, 6–11.
45. Morgan, L. B. (1988). Metaphoric communication and the psychotherapeutic process. Journal of Poetry Therapy, 1, 169-181.
46. Neimeyer, R. (1995). Client generated narratives in psychotherapy. In R. Neimeyer & M. Mahoney (Eds.), Constructivism in Psychotherapy (pp. 231-246). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
47. Parsons, M. (2010). Interpreting art through metaphors. Journal of Art & Design Education, 29 (3), 228-235.
48. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Teaching and training with metaphors. American Journal of Evaluation, 23(1), 93-98.
49. Penn, P. (2001). Chronic illness: Trauma, language, and writing: Breaking the silence. Family Process, 40(1), 33–52.
50. Raskin, J. D. ve Neimeyer, R. A. (2003). Coherent constructivism: A response to Mackay. Theory & Psychology, 13 (3), 397–409.
51. Rizzuto, A-M. (2009). Metaphoric process and metaphor: The dialectics of shared analytic experience. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 29, 18–29.
52. Robert, T. ve Kelly, V. A. (2010). Metaphor as an instrument for orchestrating change in counselor training and the counseling process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 88, 182-188.
53. Rosenman, S. (2008). Metaphor, meaning and psychitry. The Royal Austrian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, 16 (6), 391-396.
54. Rowat, R., Stefano, J. ve Drapeau, M. (2008). The role of patient- generated metaphors on in-session therapeutic processes. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy,1, 21-27.
55. Rule, W. R. ve Bishop, M. (2006). Adlerian lifestyle counseling. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
56. Rule,W. R. (1983). Family therapy and pie metaphor. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 9, 101-103.
57. Seitz, J. A. (1998). Nonverbal metaphor: A review of theories and evidence. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 124, 95-120.
58. Sharp, C., Smith, J. V. ve Cole, A. (2002). Cinematherapy: metaphorically promoting therapeutic change. Counselling Psychology Quarterly,15 (3), 269–276
59. Shinebourne, P. ve Smith, J. A. (2010). The communicative power of metaphors: An analysis and interpretation of metaphors in accounts of the experience of addiction. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 83, 59-73.
60. Siegelman, E. Y. (1990). Metaphors of the therapeutic encounter. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 35, 175- 191
61. Sommer, C. A. ve Cox, J. A. (2003). Using Greek mythology as a metaphor to enhance supervision. Counselor Education and Supervision, 42, 326-335.
62. Spence, D.P. (1987). The Freudian metaphor: Toward paradigm change in psychoanalysis. New York: W.W. Norton.
63. Steen, G. ve Gibbs, R. (2004). Questions about metaphor in literature. European Journal of English Studies, 8 (3), 337-354.
64. Stefanowitsch, A. (2005). The function of metaphor: Developing a corpus-based perspective. International Journal of Corpus Linguistic, 10 (2), 161-198.
65. Stephenson, C. (2003). A cree woman reads Jung. Transcultural Psychiatry, 40 (2), 181-193.
66. Strong, T. (1989). Metaphors and client change in counselling. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 12,203-213.
67. Sweeney, T. J., Myers, J. E. ve Stephan, J. B. (2006). Integrating developmental counseling and therapy assessment with adierian early recollections. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 62(3), 251-269.
68. Trad, P. V. (1993). Previewing: A developmental principle that promotes the therapeutic use of metaphor. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49 (2), 261-277.
69. Valenzuela, J. ve Soriano, C. (2005) Cognitive metaphor and empirical methods, Barcelona Language and Literature Studies, 14. Elde edilme tarihi: 29 Ocak 2011. www.publicacions.ub.es/revistes/bells14/PDF/ metaphor_02.pdf
70. Voltan-Acar, N. (2004). Grupla psikolojik danışma: Alıştırmalar, deneyler. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık
71. Wagner, R.K. (1987). Tacit knowledge in everyday intelligent behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1236-1247.
72. Watts, R. E. (2003). Adlerian therapy as a relational constructivist approach. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 11(2), 139-147.
73. Wickman, S.A., Daniels, M.H., White, L.J. ve Fesmire, S.A. (1999). A ‘primer’ in conceptual metaphor for counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 77, 389-394.
74. Zeig, J. (1980). Erickson’s use of anecdotes. In: J. Zeig (Ed.), A teaching seminar with Milton H.Erickson, M.D. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
75. Zuniga, M. E. (1992). Using metaphors in therapy: Dichos and Latino clients. Social Work, 37(1), 55-60.
76. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal / 2012, 4 (37)