Terrorism, Psychological Effects and Intervention Models

Abstract

Terrorism is usually defined as a form of act committed to impose their demands to the government by causing anxiety through violence in an organized manner. The aim of terrorism is to erode the very fabric of a society. Although its forms, aims, methods and effects change according to physical, social and political conditions, the effects of terrorism on human life have always been traumatic. Permanent damages can occur in the daily life, thought systems, the expectations and hopes upon future of individuals’ who are exposed to terrorism in a direct or indirect way. Both individuals and society happen to know terrorism sometimes directly, but usually indirectly via mass media. The purpose of the study was to raise a general awareness on the concept of terrorism that changes the existence of individuals and societies permanently. Moreover-what terrorism is and how it can be understood, even if there has not been an agreement on the definition of it- its psychological effects on individuals and communities, the concepts and reasons related to defense mechanism, post-traumatic stress disorders and their intervention methods used against it by the individuals are discussed to provide a clear understanding of terrorism. In this context, the two models have largely been used to understand the impact of terrorism is reviewed and cases about the models are screened.

Keywords

• -

Terörizm, Psikososyal Etkileri ve Müdahale Modelleri

Abstract

Ağırlıklı olarak, örgütlü biçimde, zor ve şiddet gibi araçlara başvurarak kaygı yaratıp bir takım istekleri kabul ettirmek için gerçekleştirilen bir eylem olarak tanımlanabilecek olan terör eylemlerinin en önemli amacı toplumsal yapıyı aşındırmaktır. Fiziksel, sosyal ve siyasi koşullara göre şekli, amacı, yöntemleri ve etkileri değişse de terörün insan hayatına olan etkisi çoğunlukla travmatik olmaktadır. Teröre doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak maruz kalan bireylerin ve toplumların günlük yaşantılarında, düşünce sistemlerinde, geleceğe ilişkin beklenti ve umutlarında kalıcı hasarlar oluşabilmektedir. Hem bireyler hem de toplum zaman zaman doğrudan ama çoğunlukla kitle iletişim araçları ile dolaylı olarak terör ile tanışmaktadır. Bu çalışmada öncelikli olarak, tanımı konusunda söz birliğine varılamamış olan terör kavramının ne olduğu ve nasıl anlaşılabileceğine ilişkin tartışmalara yer verilmiştir. Bunun ardından bireysel ve toplumsal düzlemdeki psikolojik etkileri ilgili literatür bağlamında betimlenmiştir. Devamında ise bireylerin terör eylemlerine doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak maruz kaldıkları durumlarda geliştirdikleri savunma mekanizmaları, stres bozuklukları ve müdahale yolları incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda yaygın olan iki modelin yöntemleri ile ilgili temel kavram ve gerekçeler incelenmiştir ve bu modellerin uygulamalarına ilişkin örneklere yer verilmiştir.

Keywords

• terör, travma, psikolojik etkiler, müdahale yöntemleri

References

1. Aklan, N. (2002). Gençlik ve terörizm. Ankara: Temuh Yayınları
2. Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299(5612), 1534- 1539.
3. Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms of moral disengagement. (Ed: W. Reich.), Origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind (pp. 161-191) Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
4. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B. ve Valantine, J. D. (2000). Meta- analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-766.
5. Burnham, J. J. (2005). Children’s fears: A pre-9/11 and post-9/11 comparison using the American fear survey Schedule for children. Journal of Counseling & Development, 85, 461- 466.
6. Cho, H. ve Han, M. (2004). Perceived effect of the mass media on self vs. other: A cross-cultural investigation of the third person effect hypothesis. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 14(2), 299-318.
7. Coaffee, J. (2006). From counterterrorism to resilience. The European Legacy, 11(4), 389-403.
8. Crenshaw, M. (1990). Questions to be answered, research to be done. (Ed: W. Reich), Origins of Terrorism. Cambridge: Woodrow Wilson Center.

9. Crenshaw, M. (1992). How terrorists think: what psychology can contribute to understanding terrorism? (Ed: L. Howard), Terrorism: Roots, Impact, Responses (pp. 71- 80). London: Praeger.
10. Crenshaw, M. (2000). The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century. Political Psychology, 23(3), 405-420.
11. Dedeoğlu, B. (2003). Bermuda triangle: Comparing official definitions of terrorist activity. Terrorism and Political Violence, 15, 81-110.
12. Demirkent, N. (1980). Türkiye’de terörün boyutları, gelişimi ve çözüm yolları; “Türkiye’de terör”. Ankara: Gazeteciler Cemiyeti Yayınları.
13. DiGiovanni, C. (2004). The spectrum of human reactions to terrorist attacks with weapons of mass destruction: Early management considerations. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 18(3), 253-257.
14. Dyregrov, A., Gupta, L., Gjestad, R., ve Raundalen, M. (2002). Is the culture always right? Traumatology, 8(3), 3-10.
15. Even-Chen, M. S. ve Itzhaky, H. (2007). Exposure to terrorism and violent behavior among adolescents in Israel. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(1), 43-55.
16. Farner, S. M. ve Notoro, S. J. (2006). Impact of a collage course on perceptions of terrorism preparedness activities. American Journal of Health Studies, 21(3), 137-141.
17. Ganor, B. (2002). Defining terrorism: Is one man’s terrorist another man’s freedom fighter? Police Practice and Research, 3, 287- 304.
18. Garrison, A. (2003). Terrorism: The nature of its history. Criminal Justice Studies, 16(1), 39-52.
19. Garrison, A. (2004). Defining terrorism: Philosophy of the bomb, propaganda by deed and chance through fear and violence. The Justice Professional, 17(3), 259-278.
20. Gibbs, J. P. (1989). Conceptualization of terrorism. American Sociological Review, 54, 329- 340.
21. Griffith, J. L., Agani, F., Weine, S., Ukshini, S., Pulleyblank- Coffey, E., Ulaj, J., Rolland, J., Blyta, A., ve Kalaba, M. (2005). A family-based mental health program of recovery from state terror in Kosovo. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 23, 547-558.
22. Hamaoka, D. A., Shigemura, J., Hall, M. J., ve Ursano, R. J. (2004). Mental health’s role in combating terror. Journal of Mental Health, 13(6), 531-535.
23. Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and phenomenal causality. Psychological Review, 51, 358-374.
24. Hobfoll, S. E., Tracy, M., ve Galea, S. (2006). The impact of resource loss and traumatic growth on probable PTSD and depression following terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(6), 867-878.
25. Hoffman, B. (1999). The mind of the terrorist: perspectives from social psychology. Psychiatric Annuals, 29, 337-340.
26. Holloway, H. C. ve Fullerton, C. S. (1994). The psychology of terror and its aftermath. ( Ed: R. J. Ursano, B. G. McCaughey, ve C. S. Fullerton) Individual and Community Response to Trauma and Disaster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
27. Holloway, H. C., Norwood, A. E., Fullerton, C. S., Engel, C. C.,ve Ursano, R. J. (1997). The threat of biological weapons: Prophylaxis and mitigation of psychological and social consequences. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 425-427.
28. Hournai, L., Armanian, H. ve Zuryak, H. (1986). A population based survey of loss and psychological distress during war. Social Science and Medicine, 23, 269- 275.
29. Jordan, K. (2005). What we learned from 9/11: A terrorism grief and recovery process model. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention. 5(4), 340-355.
30. Kart, M. E. (2001). Politik terörizmin sosyal psikolojik yönü. Turk Psikoloji Bülteni, 22, 76-87.
31. Kaya, İ. (2006). Terörle mücadele ve uluslararası hukuk. Legal Kitapevi: Ankara.
32. Kılıçoğlu, E. F., ve Demiray, U. (2004). 15 kasım 2003 Sinagoglar- 20 kasım 2003 HSBC ve İngiliz Konsolosluğu saldırılarının terör bağlamında irdelenmesi, (Ed: O. Gökçe, ve U. Demiray) Terörün Görüntüleri, Görüntülerin Terörü, Çizgi Kitabevi: Konya.
33. Koltko-Rivera, M. E. ve Hancock, P. A. (2004). Paper presented at the RTO SCI Symposium on “Systems, Concepts and Integration Methods and Technologies for Defense Against Terrorism,” held in London, United Kingdom, 25-27 October 2004, and published in RTO-MP-SCI-158.
34. Korkmaz, A. (1999). Terör ve medya ilişkisi. Ankara: Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü Basımevi
35. Lanning, K. (2002). Reflections an September 11: Lessons from psychological perspectives. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2, 27- 34.
36. Laquer, W. (1999). The new terrorism. New York: Oxford University Press.
37. Locicero, A ve Sinclair, S. J. (2008). Terrorism and terrorist leaders: Insights from developmental and ecological psychology. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31, 227- 250.
38. Lomasky, L. (1991). The political significance of terrorism. In R. Frey and C. Morris (ed.), Violance, terrorism and justice (pp 86- 115). New York: Cambridge University Press.
39. Meyer, D. (1991). Emotional recovery from Loma Prieta earthquake. Networks: Earthquake Preparedness News, 6(1), 6-7.
40. Milgram, N. (1986) General introduction to the field of war-related stress. (Ed: N. A. Milgram), Stress and Coping in Time of War: Generalizations from the Israeli Experience (pp 23-36). New York: Brunner/ Mazel.
41. Nandi, A., Galea, S., Ahern, J., ve Vlahov, D. (2005). Probable cigarette dependence, PTSD, and depression after an urban disaster: Results from a population survey of New York City residents 4 months after September 11, 2001. Psychiatry, 68 (4), 299-310.
42. Ofman, P. S., Mastaria, M. A., ve Sterinberg, J. (1995). Mental health response to terrorism: The World Trade Center bombing. Journal of Health Counseling, 17, 312-320.
43. Oral, N. ve Özgüner, Z. T. (2001). Terörist saldırılarının ardından travma sonrası stres belirtilerinde iyileşme. Türk Psikoloji Bülteni, 22, 64-73.
44. Pfefferbaum, B., Stuber, J., Galea, J., ve Fairbrother, G. (2006). Panic reactions to terrorist attacks and probable posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2), 217-228.
45. Poland, J. M. (1988). Understanding terrorism: Groups, strategies, and responses. New Jersay: Prentice- Hall.
46. Posty, J. ve Denny, L. (2002). The terrorists in their own words. Paper presented at the International Society of Political Psychology Conference,16- 19 July, Berlin, Germany.
47. Püsküllüoğlu, A. (1999). Türkçe Sözlük. İstanbul: Doğan Yayıncılık.
48. Quarantelli, E. L. (1985). An assessment of conflicting views of mental health: The consequences of traumatic events. (Ed: C. R. Figley), Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and Treatment of PTSD. New York: Brunner/ Mazel, Inc.
49. Rogers, M. (1999). Cyberterrorism and computer crime. Presentation Department of National Defence Air Command, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
50. Ruby, C. L. (2002). Are terrorists mentally deranged? Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 15- 26.
51. Salwen, M. B., Driscoll, P. D., ve Garrison, B. (2005). Online news and the public. ISBN: 0805848223, http:// books.online.com/books.
52. Schbley, A. (2003). Defining religious Terrorism: A causal and anthological profile. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 26, 105- 134.
53. Schimidt, A. P. ve Jongman, A. J. (1988). Political terrorism, (2nd Ed.), Oxford: North-Holland Publishing Company.
54. Schleifer, R. (2006). Psychological operations: a new variatoin on an age-old art: Hezbollah versus Israel. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29, 1-19.
55. Silke, A. (2001). The devil you know: continuing problems with research on terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 13(4), 1-14.
56. Silke, A. (2003). Becoming a terrorist. (Ed: A. Silke), Terrorists, victims and society: Psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences (pp. 29- 53). Hobken, NJ: Wiley.
57. Shalev, A. Y. ve Freedman, S. (2005). PTSD following terrorist attacks: A prospective evaluation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(6), 1188- 1191.
58. Smith, A. G. (2008). The implicit motives of terrorist groups: How the needs for affiliation and power translate into death and destruction. Political Psychology, 29(1), 55- 75.
59. Solomon, Z., Gelkopf, M., ve Bleich, A. (2005). Is terror gender blind: Gender differences in reaction to terror events? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(12), 947-954.
60. Stuckless, N. ve Goranson, R. (1992). The vengeance scale: development of a measure of attitudes toward revenge. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 7, 25-42.
61. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review Psychology, 33, 1- 39.
62. Tatar, M. ve Amram, S. (2007). Israeli adolescents’ coping strategies in relation to terrorist attacks. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 35(2), 163-173.
63. Thompson, T. ve Massat C. R. (2005). Experiences of violence, post-traumatic stress, academic achievement and behavior problems of Urban African-American children. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 22(5), 367-393.
64. Victoroff, J. (2005). The mind of the terrorist: A review and critique of psychological approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, 3- 42.
65. Volkan, V. (2005). Körü körüne inanç: Kriz ve terör dönemlerinde geniş gruplar ve liderleri. Okyanus Yayıncılık: İstanbul.
66. Wardlaw, G. (1989). Political terrorism: Theory, tactics and counter- measures, (2nd Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
67. Waters, J. A. (2002). Moving forward from September 11: A stress/ crisis/ Trauma response model. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2(1), 55-74.
68. Weiss, B. S. ve Parish, B. (1989). Culturally appropriate crisis counseling: Adapting an American method for use with Indochinese refugees. Social Work, 34(3), 252-255.
69. American Psychological Association (www.apa.org/ppo/ issues/pterrorchild.html)
70. Yalvaç, G. (2008). Ceza ve yargılama hukuku yasaları. T.C. Anayasası: TCK CMK CGTİK ve ilgili mevzuat. Ankara: Adalet Yayınları
71. Yakushko, O. (2008). The impact of social and political changes on survivors of political persecutions in rural Russia and Ukraine. Political Psychology, 29(1), 119130.
72. Yılmaz, A. (1989). Terörizm: Dünü, bugünü, yarını. Ankara: T.C.İçişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları.
73. Zeidner, M. (2006). Gender group differences in coping with chronic terror: The Israeli scene. Sex Roles, 54 (3), 297- 310.