Mindfulness in Teaching and Positive Characteristics in Teachers: Prosocial Behaviors as Mediator
Year 2022,
Volume: 12 Issue: 65, 189 - 200, 01.07.2022
Meltem Aslan Gördesli
,
Dilaram Billur Örnek
Abstract
The importance of the influence of teachers on the development of individuals is often emphasized; It is accepted that positive teacher characteristics have positive effects on both teachers and students. However, it is seen that studies on variables that affect positive teacher characteristics are mainly concerned with intrapersonal psychological processes. For this reason, it is thought that considering the variables that may affect positive teacher characteristics in the context of interpersonal and educational environments will contribute to the literature on positive teacher characteristics. This study examines the mediating role of prosocialness in the relationship between mindfulness in teaching and positive characteristics in teachers. A total of 398 teachers working at various educational levels participated in the study. It was observed that the goodness of fit values in the tested model was within acceptable limits. Prosocialness was found to be a full mediator between mindfulness and positive characteristics in teachers. When the findings of the study were examined, it was seen that it is important to study prosocialness and mindfulness in teaching among teachers and teacher candidates.
References
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- Aslan-Gördesli, M., Arslan, R., Çekici, F., Aydın-Sünbül, Z., & Malkoç, A. (2019). The psychometric properties of the mindfulness in teaching scale in a Turkish sample. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(2), 381-386. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070210
- Bağcı, B., & Öztürk Samur, A. (2016). Validity and Reliability Study of Prosocialness Scales for Children and Adults. Journal of Kırşehir Education Faculty, 17(3), 59-79. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313221059_Validity_and_Reliability_Study_of_Prosocialness_Scales_for_Children_and_Adults/link/5893078fa6fdcc1b4147a61b/download
- Becker, B. D., Gallagher, K. C., & Whitaker, R. C. (2017). Teachers’ dispositional mindfulness and the quality of their relationships with children in Head Start classrooms. Journal of School Psychology, 65, 40-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.06.004
- Birchinall, L., Spendlove, D., & Buck, R. (2019). In the Moment: Does Mindfulness Hold the Key to Improving the Resilience and Wellbeing of Pre-service Teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education 86, 102919–102929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102919
- Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Zelli, A., & Capanna, C. (2005). A new scale for measuring adults’ prosocialness. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 77-89. https://doi.org/ 10.1027/1015-5759.21.2.77
- Chen, S., & Jordan, C. H. (2018). Incorporating ethics into brief mindfulness practice: Effects on well-being and prosocial behavior. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0915-2
- Carlo, G., Hausmann, A., Christiansen, S., & Randall, B. R. (2003). Sociocognitive and Behavioral Correlates of a Measure of Prosocial Tendencies for Adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23(1), 107-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431602239132
- Condon, P. (2019). Meditation in context: Factors that facilitate prosocial behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.09.011
- Cote, S., & Moskowitz, D. S. (1998). On the dynamic covariation between interpersonal behavior and affect: Prediction from neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 75, 1032–1046. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9825533/
- Dane, E. (2011). Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance in the workplace. Journal of Management, 37(4), 997–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310367948
- de Jong, R., Mainhard, T., van Tartwijk, J., Veldman, I., Verloop, N., & Wubbels, T. (2014). How pre-service teachers’ personality traits, self-efficacy, and discipline strategies contribute to the teacher–student relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12025
- Eaton, L. G., & Funder, D. C. (2003). The creation and consequences of the social world: An interactional analysis of extraversion. European Journal of Personality, 17, 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.477
- Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon & R. M. Lerner. Handbook of child psychology (646-718), 6th edition. New York: Wiley.
- Erus, S. M. & Tekel, E. (2020). Development of interpersonal mindfulness scale (IMS-TR): A validity and reliability study. European Journal of Educational Research, 9 (1), 103-115. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.1.103
- Eryılmaz, A. (2014). Perceived personality traits and types of teachers and their relationship to the subjective well-being and academic achievements of adolescents. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14(6), 2049-2062. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2014.6.2187
- Eryılmaz, A., & Bek, H. (2018). Development of the positive teacher scale from the perspective of teachers. Kastamonu Education Journal, 26(4), 1297-1306.
- Frank, J. L., Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2016). Validation of the mindfulness in teaching scale. Mindfulness, 7(1), 155-163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0461-0
- Geçtan, E. (2012). Psikanaliz ve Sonrası. 15th Ed. Metis Publishing. İstanbul.
- Glomb, T. M., Duffy, M. K., Bono, J. E., & Yang, T. (2011). Mindfulness at work. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 30, 115–157. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0742-7301(2011)0000030005
- Guidetti, G., Viotti, S., Badagliacca, R., Colombo, L., & Converso, D. (2019). Can mindfulness mitigate the energy-depleting process and increase job resources to prevent burnout? A study on the mindfulness trait in the school context. PLoS ONE, 14(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214935
- Hafenbrack, A. C., Cameron, L. D., Spreitzer, G. M., Zhang, C., Noval, L. J., & Shaffakat, S. (2020). Helping people by being in the present: Mindfulness increases prosocial behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 159, 21-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.08.005
- Hakim, A. (2015). Contribution of Competence Teacher (Pedagogical, Personality, Professional Competence and Social) on the Performance of Learning. The International Journal of Engineering and Science, 4, 01-12. https://www.theijes.com/papers/v4-i2/Version-3/A42301012.pdf
- Hwang, Y-S., Barlett, B., Greben, M., & Hand, K. (2017). A systematic review of mindfulness interventions for in-service teachers: A tool to enhance teacher well-being and performance. Teaching and Teacher Education, 62, 26-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.01.015
- Hu, J., Zhang, Z., Jiang, K., & Chen, W. (2019). Getting ahead, getting along, and getting prosocial: Examining extraversion facets, peer reactions, and leadership emergence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104, 1369–1386. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000413
- Hunter, J. (2013). Is mindfulness good for business. Mindful, April, 52–59. https://www.mindful.org/the-real-reasons-why-mindfulness-is-good-for-business/
- Isenberg, E., Max, J., Gleason, P., Johnson, M., Deutsch, J., & Hansen, M. (2016). Do low-income students have equal access to effective teachers? Evidence from 26 districts (NCEE 2017-4007).
Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.
- Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.
- Karasar, N. (2006). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Nobel Publishing.
- Kim, L. E., Dar-Nimrod, I., & MacCann, C. (2018). Teacher personality and teacher effectiveness in secondary school: Personality predicts teacher support and student self-efficacy but not academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 309–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000217
- Külekçi, G. (2018). Identifying the perceptions of prospective English language teachers on characteristics of effective teachers: Who is the ideal teacher?. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 12(1), 1-15. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1177690.pdf
- Markiewicz, D., Doyle, A. B., & Brendgen, M. (2001). The quality of adolescents' friendships: Associations with mothers' interpersonal relationships, attachments to parents and friends, and prosocial behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2001.0374
- Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modelling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2(4), 260–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312450802458935
- McCaffrey, S., Reitman, D., & Black, R. (2017). Mindfulness in parenting questionnaire (MIPQ): development and validation of a measure of mindful parenting. Mindfulness, 8(1), 232–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0596-7
- Molloy Elreda, L., Jennings, P. A., DeMauro, A. A., Mischenko, P. P., & Brown, J. L. (2019). Protective effects of interpersonal mindfulness for teachers’ emotional supportiveness in the classroom. Mindfulness, 10, 537–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0996-y
- Pratscher, S. D., Rose, A. J., Markovitz, L., & Bettencourt, A. (2018). Interpersonal Mindfulness: Investigating Mindfulness in Interpersonal Interactions, co-Rumination, and Friendship Quality. Mindfulness, 9, 1206–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0859-y
- Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., & Cassidy, J. (2018). Attachment, caregiving in couple relationships, and prosocial behavior in the wider world. Current Opinion in Psychology https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.009
- Suda, W., & Fouts, G. (1980). Effects of peer presence on helping in introverted and extroverted children. Child Development, 1272-1275. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1129571
- Sutcliffe, K. M., Vogus, T. J., & Dane, E. (2016). Mindfulness in organizations: A cross-level review. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3(1), 55-81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062531
- Stevens, J. P. (2002). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (4th ed.). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publish.
- Tariq, F. T., & Naqvi, I. (2020). Relationship between Personality Traits and Prosocial Behavior among Adolescents. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 4(2), 54-63. https://doi.org/10.33897/fujp.v4i2.79
- Tarrasch, R., Berger, R., & Grossman, D. (2020). Mindfulness and compassion as key factors in improving teacher’s well-being. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01304
- Verduyn, P., & Brans, K. (2012). The relationship between extraversion, neuroticism and aspects of trait affect. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 664–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.017
- Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (1999). Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21, 81–123.http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/Publications/OrganizingforhighreliabilityProcessesofcollectivemindfulness.aspx
- Zayac, R. M., & Lenhard, W. (2018). Characteristics of master teachers: German university students’ perceptions of high-quality instruction. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 156, 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.20318
Öğretimde Bilinçli Farkındalık ve Pozitif Öğretmen Özellikleri: Prososyal Davranışların Aracılığı
Year 2022,
Volume: 12 Issue: 65, 189 - 200, 01.07.2022
Meltem Aslan Gördesli
,
Dilaram Billur Örnek
Abstract
Öğretmenlerin, bireylerin gelişimleri üzerindeki etkilerinin önemi sıklıkla vurgulanmakta; pozitif öğretmen özelliklerinin hem öğretmenler hem de öğrenciler üzerindeki olumlu etkileri kabul edilmektedir. Ancak pozitif öğretmen özelliklerinde etkili olan değişkenlere yönelik çalışmaların ağırlıklı olarak kişi-içi psikolojik süreçlerle ilgilendiği görülmektedir. Bu nedenle pozitif öğretmen özelliklerinde etkili olabilecek değişkenlerin kişilerarası ve eğitim ortamı bağlamında ele alınmasının pozitif öğretmen özelliklerine dair alanyazına katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu çalışma, öğretimde bilinçli farkındalık ile öğretmenlerdeki olumlu özellikler arasındaki ilişkide prososyal davranışların aracı rolünü incelemektedir. Araştırmaya çeşitli eğitim kademelerinde görev yapan toplam 398 öğretmen katılmıştır. Yapısal eşitlik modelinin kullanıldığı bu çalışmada öğretimde bilinçli farkındalık ile pozitif öğretmenlik arasındaki ilişkide prososyal davranışların tam aracı olduğu bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmanın bulguları incelendiğinde, öğretmen yetiştirme ve hizmet içi eğitimlerinde öğretimde bilinçli farkındalık ve prososyal davranışlara yer verilmesinin önemli olduğu görülmüştür.
References
- Aregbeyen, O. (2010). Students’ perceptions of effective teaching and effective lecturer characteristics at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 62–69. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Omo-Aregbeyen-2/publication/250303799_Students_Perceptions_of_Effective_Teaching_and_Effective_Lecturer_Characteristics_at_the_University_of_Ibadan_Nigeria/links/562b4cfb08ae518e348064f6/Students-Perceptions-of-Effective-Teaching-and-Effective-Lecturer-Characteristics-at-the-University-of-Ibadan-Nigeria.pdf
- Aslan-Gördesli, M., Arslan, R., Çekici, F., Aydın-Sünbül, Z., & Malkoç, A. (2019). The psychometric properties of the mindfulness in teaching scale in a Turkish sample. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(2), 381-386. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070210
- Bağcı, B., & Öztürk Samur, A. (2016). Validity and Reliability Study of Prosocialness Scales for Children and Adults. Journal of Kırşehir Education Faculty, 17(3), 59-79. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313221059_Validity_and_Reliability_Study_of_Prosocialness_Scales_for_Children_and_Adults/link/5893078fa6fdcc1b4147a61b/download
- Becker, B. D., Gallagher, K. C., & Whitaker, R. C. (2017). Teachers’ dispositional mindfulness and the quality of their relationships with children in Head Start classrooms. Journal of School Psychology, 65, 40-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.06.004
- Birchinall, L., Spendlove, D., & Buck, R. (2019). In the Moment: Does Mindfulness Hold the Key to Improving the Resilience and Wellbeing of Pre-service Teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education 86, 102919–102929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102919
- Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Zelli, A., & Capanna, C. (2005). A new scale for measuring adults’ prosocialness. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 77-89. https://doi.org/ 10.1027/1015-5759.21.2.77
- Chen, S., & Jordan, C. H. (2018). Incorporating ethics into brief mindfulness practice: Effects on well-being and prosocial behavior. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0915-2
- Carlo, G., Hausmann, A., Christiansen, S., & Randall, B. R. (2003). Sociocognitive and Behavioral Correlates of a Measure of Prosocial Tendencies for Adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23(1), 107-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431602239132
- Condon, P. (2019). Meditation in context: Factors that facilitate prosocial behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.09.011
- Cote, S., & Moskowitz, D. S. (1998). On the dynamic covariation between interpersonal behavior and affect: Prediction from neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 75, 1032–1046. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9825533/
- Dane, E. (2011). Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance in the workplace. Journal of Management, 37(4), 997–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310367948
- de Jong, R., Mainhard, T., van Tartwijk, J., Veldman, I., Verloop, N., & Wubbels, T. (2014). How pre-service teachers’ personality traits, self-efficacy, and discipline strategies contribute to the teacher–student relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12025
- Eaton, L. G., & Funder, D. C. (2003). The creation and consequences of the social world: An interactional analysis of extraversion. European Journal of Personality, 17, 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.477
- Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon & R. M. Lerner. Handbook of child psychology (646-718), 6th edition. New York: Wiley.
- Erus, S. M. & Tekel, E. (2020). Development of interpersonal mindfulness scale (IMS-TR): A validity and reliability study. European Journal of Educational Research, 9 (1), 103-115. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.1.103
- Eryılmaz, A. (2014). Perceived personality traits and types of teachers and their relationship to the subjective well-being and academic achievements of adolescents. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 14(6), 2049-2062. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2014.6.2187
- Eryılmaz, A., & Bek, H. (2018). Development of the positive teacher scale from the perspective of teachers. Kastamonu Education Journal, 26(4), 1297-1306.
- Frank, J. L., Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2016). Validation of the mindfulness in teaching scale. Mindfulness, 7(1), 155-163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0461-0
- Geçtan, E. (2012). Psikanaliz ve Sonrası. 15th Ed. Metis Publishing. İstanbul.
- Glomb, T. M., Duffy, M. K., Bono, J. E., & Yang, T. (2011). Mindfulness at work. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 30, 115–157. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0742-7301(2011)0000030005
- Guidetti, G., Viotti, S., Badagliacca, R., Colombo, L., & Converso, D. (2019). Can mindfulness mitigate the energy-depleting process and increase job resources to prevent burnout? A study on the mindfulness trait in the school context. PLoS ONE, 14(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214935
- Hafenbrack, A. C., Cameron, L. D., Spreitzer, G. M., Zhang, C., Noval, L. J., & Shaffakat, S. (2020). Helping people by being in the present: Mindfulness increases prosocial behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 159, 21-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.08.005
- Hakim, A. (2015). Contribution of Competence Teacher (Pedagogical, Personality, Professional Competence and Social) on the Performance of Learning. The International Journal of Engineering and Science, 4, 01-12. https://www.theijes.com/papers/v4-i2/Version-3/A42301012.pdf
- Hwang, Y-S., Barlett, B., Greben, M., & Hand, K. (2017). A systematic review of mindfulness interventions for in-service teachers: A tool to enhance teacher well-being and performance. Teaching and Teacher Education, 62, 26-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.01.015
- Hu, J., Zhang, Z., Jiang, K., & Chen, W. (2019). Getting ahead, getting along, and getting prosocial: Examining extraversion facets, peer reactions, and leadership emergence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104, 1369–1386. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000413
- Hunter, J. (2013). Is mindfulness good for business. Mindful, April, 52–59. https://www.mindful.org/the-real-reasons-why-mindfulness-is-good-for-business/
- Isenberg, E., Max, J., Gleason, P., Johnson, M., Deutsch, J., & Hansen, M. (2016). Do low-income students have equal access to effective teachers? Evidence from 26 districts (NCEE 2017-4007).
Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.
- Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.
- Karasar, N. (2006). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Nobel Publishing.
- Kim, L. E., Dar-Nimrod, I., & MacCann, C. (2018). Teacher personality and teacher effectiveness in secondary school: Personality predicts teacher support and student self-efficacy but not academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 309–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000217
- Külekçi, G. (2018). Identifying the perceptions of prospective English language teachers on characteristics of effective teachers: Who is the ideal teacher?. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 12(1), 1-15. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1177690.pdf
- Markiewicz, D., Doyle, A. B., & Brendgen, M. (2001). The quality of adolescents' friendships: Associations with mothers' interpersonal relationships, attachments to parents and friends, and prosocial behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2001.0374
- Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modelling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2(4), 260–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312450802458935
- McCaffrey, S., Reitman, D., & Black, R. (2017). Mindfulness in parenting questionnaire (MIPQ): development and validation of a measure of mindful parenting. Mindfulness, 8(1), 232–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0596-7
- Molloy Elreda, L., Jennings, P. A., DeMauro, A. A., Mischenko, P. P., & Brown, J. L. (2019). Protective effects of interpersonal mindfulness for teachers’ emotional supportiveness in the classroom. Mindfulness, 10, 537–546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0996-y
- Pratscher, S. D., Rose, A. J., Markovitz, L., & Bettencourt, A. (2018). Interpersonal Mindfulness: Investigating Mindfulness in Interpersonal Interactions, co-Rumination, and Friendship Quality. Mindfulness, 9, 1206–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0859-y
- Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., & Cassidy, J. (2018). Attachment, caregiving in couple relationships, and prosocial behavior in the wider world. Current Opinion in Psychology https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.009
- Suda, W., & Fouts, G. (1980). Effects of peer presence on helping in introverted and extroverted children. Child Development, 1272-1275. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1129571
- Sutcliffe, K. M., Vogus, T. J., & Dane, E. (2016). Mindfulness in organizations: A cross-level review. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3(1), 55-81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062531
- Stevens, J. P. (2002). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (4th ed.). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publish.
- Tariq, F. T., & Naqvi, I. (2020). Relationship between Personality Traits and Prosocial Behavior among Adolescents. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 4(2), 54-63. https://doi.org/10.33897/fujp.v4i2.79
- Tarrasch, R., Berger, R., & Grossman, D. (2020). Mindfulness and compassion as key factors in improving teacher’s well-being. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01304
- Verduyn, P., & Brans, K. (2012). The relationship between extraversion, neuroticism and aspects of trait affect. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 664–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.017
- Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (1999). Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21, 81–123.http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/Publications/OrganizingforhighreliabilityProcessesofcollectivemindfulness.aspx
- Zayac, R. M., & Lenhard, W. (2018). Characteristics of master teachers: German university students’ perceptions of high-quality instruction. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 156, 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.20318