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Investigating Coded Language and Overt Discriminatory Practices in the Context of Islamophobia: A Categorization Effort in Terms of Islamophobic Hate Speech

Year 2022, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 408 - 433, 31.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.37679/trta.1118560

Abstract

This study’s problem is that there is no complete categorization that researchers will use in their studies on Islamophobic discourses. Applying last ten years criteria, “İslamophobia” was searched in Web of Science and then 200 studies with the highest citation rate were downloaded. After that, a descriptive analysis was conducted in order to understand which themes came to the fore in the subject. Thanks to this analysis, it has been determined that an Islamophobic discourse can be put forward in 7 dimensions: "cultural", "security", "economic", "law", "demographic", "criticism of elites and political correctness" and "denial of Islamophobia and reverse racism". Another aim of this study is to reveal the increase in overt discriminatory practices. In other words, an Islamophobic discourse against Muslims, for example in the security dimension, can be expressed both with a coded language such as "barbaric attack by a Muslim asylum seeker" and with an overt discriminatory practices such as "all Muslims are terrorists". To make a theoretical contribution to this field, the concepts of discourse community and discriminatory sub-discourse have been put forward. And lastly, it was aimed to understand the relationship of those concepts and dimensions of Islamophobic hate speech.

References

  • Awan, I., & Zempi, I. (2016). The affinity between online and offline anti-Muslim hate crime: Dynamics and impacts. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27, 1-8
  • Ben-David, A., & Fernández, A. M. (2016). Hate speech and covert discrimination on social media: Monitoring the Facebook pages of extreme-right political parties in Spain. International Journal of Communication, 10, 27.
  • Benhabib, S. (Ed.). (1996). Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
  • Chomsky, N. & Herman, E. (1998). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of mass media. New York America. Pantheon Books
  • Çeçen, A. F. (2021). İslamofobi ve Sosyal Medyada Nefret Söylemi: Batı’da Aşırı Sağın Ana Akım Siyasete Tahakkümü. Konya. Literatürk Yayınları.
  • De Genova, N. (2018). The “migrant crisis” as racial crisis: Do black lives matter in Europe?. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(10), 1765-1782.
  • Dunwoody, P. T., & McFarland, S. G. (2018). Support for anti‐Muslim policies: The role of political traits and threat perception. Political Psychology, 39(1), 89-106.
  • Ekman, M. (2015). Online Islamophobia and the politics of fear: Manufacturing the green scare. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(11), 1986-2002.
  • El-Tayeb, F. (2012). ‘Gays who cannot properly be gay’: Queer Muslims in the neoliberal European city. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 19(1), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506811426388
  • Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections of power: Framing news, public opinion, and US foreign policy. University of Chicago Press.
  • Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory (Vol. 2). Sage
  • Farkas, J., Schou, J., & Neumayer, C. (2018). Cloaked Facebook pages: Exploring fake Islamist propaganda in social media. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1850-1867.
  • Garner, S., & Selod, S. (2015). The racialization of Muslims: Empirical studies of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 9-19.
  • Helbling, M. (2014). Opposing muslims and the muslim headscarf in Western Europe. European Sociological Review, 30(2), 242
  • Horvat, M, T. (2022, Şubat 10) Please, Don’t Call Protestants Christians. https://www.traditioninaction.org/religious/m013rpProtestantsChristians.html
  • Hughey, M. W., & Daniels, J. (2013). Racist comments at online news sites: a methodological dilemma for discourse analysis. Media, Culture & Society, 35(3), 332-347
  • Huntington, S. P. (1997). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. New York: Touchstone.
  • Karim, K. H., & Eid, M. (2012). Clash of ignorance. Global Media Journal—Canadian Edition, 5(1), 7-27.
  • Karim, K. H., & Eid, M. (2014). Imagining the other. İçinde M. Eid & K. Karim (Ed.), Re-Imagining the Other: Culture, media, and Western-Muslim intersections. (ss. 1-21). Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
  • Klein, O & Muis, J. (2018). Online discontent: comparing Western European far-right groups on Facebook, European Societies, 21:4, 540-562, DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2018.1494293
  • Klein, O. (2016). Anti-immigrant and anti-Islam mobilization online: Comparing the networks of-and frames on British and German antiimmigrant and anti-Islam Facebook pages. [Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi]. Leiden University Faculty of Social & Behavioral Sciences
  • Krzyżanowski, M., & Wodak, R. (2017). The politics of exclusion: Debating migration in Austria. Routledge.
  • Kundnani, A. (2012). Radicalisation: the journey of a concept. Race & Class, 54(2), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396812454984
  • Meer, N. (2013). Racialization and religion: race, culture and difference in the study of antisemitism and Islamophobia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(3), 385-398.
  • Moosavi, L. (2015). The racialization of Muslim converts in Britain and their experiences of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 41-56.
  • Nadal, K. L., Griffin, K. E., Hamit, S., Leon, J., Tobio, M., & Rivera, D. P. (2012). Subtle and overt forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 6, 16–37
  • Ogan, C., Willnat, L., Pennington, R., & Bashir, M. (2014). The rise of anti-Muslim prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. International Communication Gazette, 76(1), 27–46. https://doi. org/10.1177/1748048513504048
  • Stephenson, M. L. (2014). Deciphering ‘Islamic hospitality’: Developments, challenges and opportunities. Tourism Management, 40, 155-164.
  • Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge University Press.
  • TDV. (2022 Şubat 11). Protestanlık. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/protestanlikTörnberg, A., & Törnberg, P. (2016). Muslims in social media discourse: Combining topic modeling and critical discourse analysis. Discourse, Context & Media, 13, 132-142.
  • Van der Bom, I., Coffey-Glover, L., Jones, L., Mills, S., & Paterson, L. L. (2015). Implicit homophobic argument structure: Equal-marriage discourse in The Moral Maze. Journal of Language and Sexuality, 4(1), 102-137.
  • Van Dijk, T. A. (2019). Macrostructures: An interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, interaction, and cognition. Routledge.
  • Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara. Seçkin Yayıncılık.

İslamofobi Bağlamında Kodlanmış ve Açık Ayrımcı Dile Bakmak: İslamofobik Nefret Söylemi Açısından Bir Kategorizasyon Çabası

Year 2022, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 408 - 433, 31.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.37679/trta.1118560

Abstract

Bu çalışma sistematik bir literatür taramasıyla beraber İslamofobik nefret söyleminin incelenmesi açısından bir kategorizasyon ortaya koyma çabasındadır. Bu amaç, literatürde İslamofobik söylemlere yönelik bir kategorizasyonun bir bütün halinde olmaması, eş deyişle parçalı bir biçimde pek çok farklı çalışmada olması nedeniyle araştırmacıların bu söylemlerle ilgili araştırmalarında kullanacakları tam bir kategorizasyon şematiğinin olmaması problemine dayanır. Web of Science’da son 10 yıl kriteri gözetilerek “İslamophobia” terimi ile yapılan aramada en çok alıntı sayısına ulaşan 200 çalışma indirilerek İslamofobik söylem konusunda hangi temaların ön plana çıktığının anlaşılması adına betimsel analiz yapılmıştır. Bu analiz sayesinde İslamofobik bir söylemin “kültürel”, “güvenlik”, “ekonomik”, “hukuk”, “demografik”, “elitlere ve politik doğruculuğa eleştiriler” ve “İslamofobinin inkârı ve tersine ırkçılık” olmak üzere 7 boyutta ortaya konulabileceği tespit edilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın başka bir amacı da internetin kontrolü zor yapısından ötürü nefret söylemini körükleyen bir katalizör rolü oynamasıyla açık ayrımcı dilde olan artışı ortaya koymaktır. Eş deyişle Müslümanlara karşı örneğin güvenlik boyutundaki bir İslamofobik söylem hem “Müslüman sığınmacıdan barbarca saldırı” şeklindeki kodlanmış dille hem de “tüm Müslümanlar teröristtir” şeklindeki bir açık ayrımcı dille ifade edilebilir. Bu alana teorik bir katkı vermek amacıyla çalışmada söylem topluluğu ve ayrımcı alt-söylem kavramları ortaya konmuş ve bunların İslamofobik nefret söyleminin boyutları ile olan ilişkisine yer verilmiştir.

References

  • Awan, I., & Zempi, I. (2016). The affinity between online and offline anti-Muslim hate crime: Dynamics and impacts. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27, 1-8
  • Ben-David, A., & Fernández, A. M. (2016). Hate speech and covert discrimination on social media: Monitoring the Facebook pages of extreme-right political parties in Spain. International Journal of Communication, 10, 27.
  • Benhabib, S. (Ed.). (1996). Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
  • Chomsky, N. & Herman, E. (1998). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of mass media. New York America. Pantheon Books
  • Çeçen, A. F. (2021). İslamofobi ve Sosyal Medyada Nefret Söylemi: Batı’da Aşırı Sağın Ana Akım Siyasete Tahakkümü. Konya. Literatürk Yayınları.
  • De Genova, N. (2018). The “migrant crisis” as racial crisis: Do black lives matter in Europe?. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(10), 1765-1782.
  • Dunwoody, P. T., & McFarland, S. G. (2018). Support for anti‐Muslim policies: The role of political traits and threat perception. Political Psychology, 39(1), 89-106.
  • Ekman, M. (2015). Online Islamophobia and the politics of fear: Manufacturing the green scare. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(11), 1986-2002.
  • El-Tayeb, F. (2012). ‘Gays who cannot properly be gay’: Queer Muslims in the neoliberal European city. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 19(1), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506811426388
  • Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections of power: Framing news, public opinion, and US foreign policy. University of Chicago Press.
  • Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory (Vol. 2). Sage
  • Farkas, J., Schou, J., & Neumayer, C. (2018). Cloaked Facebook pages: Exploring fake Islamist propaganda in social media. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1850-1867.
  • Garner, S., & Selod, S. (2015). The racialization of Muslims: Empirical studies of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 9-19.
  • Helbling, M. (2014). Opposing muslims and the muslim headscarf in Western Europe. European Sociological Review, 30(2), 242
  • Horvat, M, T. (2022, Şubat 10) Please, Don’t Call Protestants Christians. https://www.traditioninaction.org/religious/m013rpProtestantsChristians.html
  • Hughey, M. W., & Daniels, J. (2013). Racist comments at online news sites: a methodological dilemma for discourse analysis. Media, Culture & Society, 35(3), 332-347
  • Huntington, S. P. (1997). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. New York: Touchstone.
  • Karim, K. H., & Eid, M. (2012). Clash of ignorance. Global Media Journal—Canadian Edition, 5(1), 7-27.
  • Karim, K. H., & Eid, M. (2014). Imagining the other. İçinde M. Eid & K. Karim (Ed.), Re-Imagining the Other: Culture, media, and Western-Muslim intersections. (ss. 1-21). Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
  • Klein, O & Muis, J. (2018). Online discontent: comparing Western European far-right groups on Facebook, European Societies, 21:4, 540-562, DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2018.1494293
  • Klein, O. (2016). Anti-immigrant and anti-Islam mobilization online: Comparing the networks of-and frames on British and German antiimmigrant and anti-Islam Facebook pages. [Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi]. Leiden University Faculty of Social & Behavioral Sciences
  • Krzyżanowski, M., & Wodak, R. (2017). The politics of exclusion: Debating migration in Austria. Routledge.
  • Kundnani, A. (2012). Radicalisation: the journey of a concept. Race & Class, 54(2), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396812454984
  • Meer, N. (2013). Racialization and religion: race, culture and difference in the study of antisemitism and Islamophobia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(3), 385-398.
  • Moosavi, L. (2015). The racialization of Muslim converts in Britain and their experiences of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 41-56.
  • Nadal, K. L., Griffin, K. E., Hamit, S., Leon, J., Tobio, M., & Rivera, D. P. (2012). Subtle and overt forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 6, 16–37
  • Ogan, C., Willnat, L., Pennington, R., & Bashir, M. (2014). The rise of anti-Muslim prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. International Communication Gazette, 76(1), 27–46. https://doi. org/10.1177/1748048513504048
  • Stephenson, M. L. (2014). Deciphering ‘Islamic hospitality’: Developments, challenges and opportunities. Tourism Management, 40, 155-164.
  • Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge University Press.
  • TDV. (2022 Şubat 11). Protestanlık. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/protestanlikTörnberg, A., & Törnberg, P. (2016). Muslims in social media discourse: Combining topic modeling and critical discourse analysis. Discourse, Context & Media, 13, 132-142.
  • Van der Bom, I., Coffey-Glover, L., Jones, L., Mills, S., & Paterson, L. L. (2015). Implicit homophobic argument structure: Equal-marriage discourse in The Moral Maze. Journal of Language and Sexuality, 4(1), 102-137.
  • Van Dijk, T. A. (2019). Macrostructures: An interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, interaction, and cognition. Routledge.
  • Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara. Seçkin Yayıncılık.
There are 33 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Communication and Media Studies
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Ahmet Faruk Çeçen 0000-0003-3561-2915

Publication Date May 31, 2022
Submission Date May 18, 2022
Acceptance Date May 28, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 7 Issue: 15

Cite

APA Çeçen, A. F. (2022). İslamofobi Bağlamında Kodlanmış ve Açık Ayrımcı Dile Bakmak: İslamofobik Nefret Söylemi Açısından Bir Kategorizasyon Çabası. TRT Akademi, 7(15), 408-433. https://doi.org/10.37679/trta.1118560

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